JOSEPH  E.  WING. 


Sheep  Farming 
In  America 


By  JOSEPH  E.  WING, 

Staff  Correspondent  of  The  Breeder's  Gazette. 


® 


NEW  AND    ENLARGED  (3d)  EDITION. 


CHICAGO: 

The  Breeder's  Gazette. 
1912. 


h  5  / 

5 


Copyright,  1912, 

BY  SANDERS  PUBLISHING  CO. 
All  rights  reserved. 


CONTENTS. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 11-12 

INTRODUCTION 13-19 

INTRODUCTION  TO  SECOND  EDITION 20 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THIRD  EDITION 20-26 

CHAPTER   I. 

FINE- WOOL  BREEDS 27-42 

Merinos 28 

American  Merinos 31 

Delaine  Merinos  and  Black  Tops 33 

Rambouillets 37 

CHAPTER   II. 

MUTTON  BREEDS 43-56 

The  Downs — 

Southdowns 44 

Shropshires   48 

Hampshires   51 

Oxfords 53 

Suffolks   55 

The  Long- Wools — 

Leicesters    56 

Cotswolds    57 

Lincolns   58 

Dorset  Horns   60 

The  Mountain  Breeds — 

Cheviots    64 

Black-faces    66 

Tunis  and  Persian  Sheep 69 

CHAPTER   III. 

CROSS-BREEDING    76-87 

Dishley   Merinos    79 

Cross-Breeding  for  the  Lamb  Market 80-83 

Cross-Breeding  in  Eastern  Pastures . . , 83 

(5) 

272037 


6  i*t\>:  V1  •;      £B$EP  ^ARMING  IN  AMERICA 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 88-121 

Restocking  a  Farm  with  Sheep 88 

Selection  of  the  Ram 89 

Keeping  a  Type 90 

Fixing  Type 94 

Renewed  Vitality  from  Fresh  Blood 98 

Vitality  the  Thing  to  Strive  for 99 

Selection  of  the  Ewes 99 

Getting  Home  with  the  Flock 101 

Importance  of  Dipping 102 

The  Scab  Germ 103 

The  Dipping  Vat 105 

Regular  Dipping  of  the  Farm  Flock 109 

Summary  of  Dipping 110 

Fall  Treatment  of  the  Ewe  Flock 112 

Mating 113 

Putting  in  the  Ram 114 

Management  of  the  Ram 115 

Care  of  the  Pregnant  Ewe 117 

CHAPTER   V. 

CABE  OF  THE  BWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB 122-162 

The  Ewe  Barn 122 

Care  at  Lambing  Time 125 

Feeding  of  the  Ewe  After  Lambing 131 

Troubles  of  Young  Lambhood 137 

Sore  Mouths  and  Teats 138 

Feeding  the  Lambs 139 

Feeding  for  the  Market 142 

Dressing  Lambs  for  Fancy  Winter  Market 148 

Treatment  of  the  Late-born  Lambs 151 

Feeding  Corn  on  Grass 154 

Summer   Shade 155 

Marketing  the   Spring  Lamb 158 

Docking   159 

Castration  of  Old  Rams 160 

Castration  of  Lambs 161 

Weaning 161 

CHAPTER   VI. 

SUMMER  CABE  AND  MANAGEMENT 163-199 

The  Ewe  Flock . .  163 


CONTENTS  7 

A  System  of  Management  that  Insures  a  Healthy  Flock. .  .170 

Use  of  Sown  Pastures 178 

Oats  and  Alfalfa  Pasture 180 

Clover  and  Alfalfa  Pasture 181 

Danger  from  Clover  and  Alfalfa  Pasture.  . 182 

The  Use  of  Rape 187 

Cabbages 189 

Pumpkins 189 

Care  of  the  Feet 191 

Foot-Rot  and  Foot-Scald 192 

Advent  of  Late  Lambs 194 

The  Lambing  Tent 196 

Fall  Lambs 198 

CHAPTER    VII. 

WASHING,  SHEARING  AND  MARKING 200-214 

Washing   and    Shearing 201 

Shearing    202 

Shearing    Machines : 205 

Marking 209 

Tattoo  Mark 210 

Marking  Pure-bred   Lambs 212 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  WESTERN  STATES 215-260 

New  Mexico '. 215 

Character  of  Mexican   Sheep 216 

"The  Good  Old  Times"  in  New  Mexico 218 

Modern    Management 218 

Diseases  of  the  Range 221 

Mexican  Lambs  as  Feeders 222 

The  Wandering  Herds 222 

Waiting  for  Grass  to  Come 224 

The  Blood  of  the  Herds 226 

The  Division  of  the  Ranges 226 

Montana,  Wyoming  and  the  Dakotas 227 

Parasitic  Infection  of  the  Ranges 228 

Future  of  the   Northern  Plains  Region 228 

Management  of  the  Range  Rams 230 

Where  the  Rams  Come  From 231 

The   Breeding   Season , 232 

Vigor  of  Ewes  and  Lambs 232 

The  Busy  Shepherd  at  Lambing  Time 233 


8  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

The  Coyote 233 

"Trimming"    the    Lambs 234 

Shearing  on  the  Range 236 

Dipping    237 

The  Maligned  "Sheep  Herder" 238 

tips  and  Downs  of  the  Business 241 

The  Hopeful  Outlook 242 

A  Work  to  be  Done 242 

Sheep  Advance;  Cattle  Retreat 244 

Winter  Feeding  of  Sheep  and  Lambs 244 

Necessity  for  Dipping 246 

Selection  of  Feeders '. 248 

Feeding    of    Lambs 260 

CHAPTER   IX. 

WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING 261-310 

Pea  Feeding  in   Colorado 261 

Canadian  Peas  for  Lamb  Feeding 262 

Peas  in  the  San  Luis  Valley 263 

Amount  of  Lamb  Mutton  from  an  Acre  of  Peas 266 

Alfalfa-fed  Colorado  Lambs 268 

Feeding   Mill   Screenings 275 

Sheep  Feeding  in-the  Cornbelt 276 

Use  of  Self-Feeders 295 

Feeding   Beet   Pulp 295 

Causes  of  Death  in  the  Feedlot 296 

Peas  for  Lambs 299 

Lamb  Feeding  in  Michigan 300 

The  Business  of  Lamb  Feeding 302 

Feeding  of  Older  Sheep 302 

Feeding   Mature   Wethers 304 

CHAPTER    X. 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP 311-346 

Ailments  in  General 311 

Importance   of  Post-Mortem   Dissection 317 

Other  Diseases  of  Sheep 318 

Garget,  or  Mammitis 319 

Grubs  in  the  Head 323 

Liver  Fluke — "The  Rot" 324 

Nodular  Disease  324 

Tapeworms    325 

Husk,  Hoose,  or  Parasitic  Bronchitis 327 


CONTENTS 

Stomach  Worm 327 

Symptoms   and   Diagnosis 330 

Life  History  of  the  Stomach  Worm 320 

Methods  of  Preventing  Infection 333 

Treatment  for  Stomach  Worms 338 

Coal-Tar  Creosote 339 

Bluestone    340 

Gasoline     341 

Other  Remedies    341 

Start  with  a  Healthy  Flock 342 

CHAPTER    XI. 

ANGORA  AND  MILKING  GOATS 347-364 

The  Angora  Goat 347 

The  Milking  Goat 360 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Joseph  E.  Wing Frontispiece 

Two-year-old   Merino   Ram 29 

Delaine  Merino  Ram  Lambs 35 

Yearling  Rambouillet  Ewes  in  Prance 39 

Photographic  Studies  in  Down  Types  of  Sheep 45 

Farm  Training  for  the  Show  Ring 49 

Suffolk   Ram    55 

Lincolns  in  the  Show  Ring 59 

Lincoln  Rams 61 

Lincoln  Ewes 61 

Some   Ohio   Dorsets 63 

Cheviot  Ewes    65 

Group  of  Tunis  Sheep  on  an  Ohio  Farm 71 

A  Trio  of  Prize-Winning  Lincolns 73 

Dorset  Ewes    81 

Rambouillet  Ram   91 

The  Champion  Ram  that  was  Not  Too  Good 93 

Shropshire  Ewes  on  a  Canadian  Farm 95 

Black-faced  Rams    % 97 

Dipping  Sheep  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin 103 

Dipping  Plant 107 

Southdown  Ewes    „ 127 

Leicester  Ewes  in  Nebraska 133 

"Mary  Had   Five   Little   Lambs" 141 

An   English    "Creep" 143 

Merino  Wethers  on  the  Way  to  Market 145 

Ready  for  Market 149 

California-bred  Rambouillet  Rams 153 

A  Carload  of  Yearling  Wethers 157 

In  an  Old-Country  Pasture 165 

Cotswold   Ewes 167 

Studies  in   Sheep  Character 173 

On  a  Mountain  Range  in  Wyoming 179 

Yearling  Oxford  Ram 183 

Leicester   Ram    185 

Imported  Hampshire  Ram  Lambs 195 

Hand   Shearing   Machine 205 

(11) 


12  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

Shearing  Black-faced  Sheep  in   Scotland 207 

Yearling   Oxford   Ram 217 

Dishley  Merinos  in  France 219 

Black-faced  Sheep  in  the  Hills 225 

A  Kansas  Feeding  Yard,  Capacity,  18,000  Sheep 229 

A  Sheep  Wagon  on  the  Range 235 

Lincoln  Shearlings 239 

An  Illinois  Feeding  and  Shipping  Yard 243 

Delaine  Merino   Lambs  in   California 245 

Feeding  Corral,  with  Straight  Fence 249 

A  Show  of  Cotswolds 257 

A  Shropshire  Flock  in  Colorado 265 

Racks  for  Feeding  Grain 270 

Box  Rack  for  Feeding  Alfalfa 271 

Side  View  of  Model  Sheep  Barn,  Showing  Doors 278 

Cross-section  of  Model  Sheep  Barn  Showing  Frame 279 

Two  Views  of  Feed-Rack 281 

A  Texas  Feeding  Yard 285 

Sheep  Wagons 291 

Feeding  Corral,  with  Zigzag  Fence 297 

A  Pair  of  Hampshire  Lambs 303 

At  a  Royal  English  Show 305 

An  Angora  Goat  Show. .  .349 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  traveler  in  England,  Scotland  and  parts  of 
France  and  Germany  is  impressed  by  the  importance 
of  the  sheep  industry  to  these  lands.  Sheep  farms 
are  often  found  close  together  and  of  large  size  with 
great  numbers  of  sheep  thereon.  The  writer  has 
stood  on  one  hill  in  Dorsetshire  and  counted  eight 
shepherds,  each  with  his  flock  of  about  400  ewes  and 
their  lambs,  in  sight  at  one  time.  Nearby,  in  an 
adjoining  county,  flocks  of  Hampshires  exist  as  large 
as  2,500  on  farms  of  not  above  1,400  acres  of  not 
extra  soil.  These  flocks  are  very  profitable  and  they 
make  rich  soils  that  without  the  sheep  would  be 
hardly  worth  cultivating.  They  exist  in  wonderful 
health  and  vigor  on  lands  that  have  been  sheeped 
since  civilization  peopled  the  land.  In  Scotland  and 
the  Cheviot  hills  flocks  exist  over  the  entire  land, 
and  without  sheep  the  land  would  almost  lapse  into 
wilderness.  In  France  on  lands  worth  $250  per  acre 
great  flocks  of  mutton  sheep  are  kept.  The  agricul- 
ture of  these  countries  leans  strongly  on  the  sheep. 
Long  experience  in  maintaining  fertility,  in  creating 
it,  has  taught  the  farmers  that  without  the  flocks 
they  cannot  continue  profitable  agriculture.  Sheep 
fit  in  well  to  an  intensive  system  of  agriculture. 
They  are  docile,  tractable,  easily  kept  within  bounds, 
not  fastidious  in  their  appetites  but  willing  to  de- 

(13) 


14  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

vour  most  weeds  along  with  the  good  forage,  and 
they  leave  behind  them  a  wake  of  fruitful  soil. 

In  America  sheep  farming  is  little  understood. 
Sheep  are  kept  in  a  more  or  less  desultory  manner, 
having  the  run  of  some  hill  pasture  or  woodland, 
fed  at  intervals  in  winter,  sold  off  when  prices  be- 
come low,  bought  up  again  with  the  return  of  higher 
prices,  given  small  care  or  encouragement,  often 
afflicted  with  parasites,  internal  and  external,  a  side 
issue  with  the  farmer,  profitable  in  spite  of  his 
neglect,  yet  not  often  assuming  the  dignity  of  a 
business  of  themselves.  There  are  several  reasons 
for  this  state.  It  is  in  part  a  heritage  of  the  days 
when  sheep  were  little  valued  for  their  flesh  and 
were  kept  mainly  for  their  fleeces.  It  is  in  part  a 
result  of  our  once  cheap  lands  and  insufficient  labor 
with  which  to  till  them.  And  in  large  part  it  is  be- 
cause of  ignorance  of  profitable  methods.  When 
sheep  thrive  their  owners  gladly  reap  the  profits; 
when  they  become  diseased  and  unprofitable  it  is 
usually  charged  to  ' '  bad  luck. ' '  There  need  be  small 
element  of  luck  or  chance  in  sheep  management. 
There  is  always  a  reason  for  thrift  and  for  un- 
thrift  in  the  flock.  There  need  rarely  be  any  disease 
in  the  flock.  A  healthy  sheep  is  certain  to  be  a  profit- 
able one. 

There  is  at  this  time  good  reason  for  thinking 
seriously  of  these  problems  of  sheep  husbandry  be- 
cause of  the  increase  of  mutton  consumption,  and 
the  fact  that  while  there  is  some  increase  in  produc- 
tion it  does  not  at  all  keep  pace  with  the  increased 


INTRODUCTION  15 

demand.  April  1,  1909,  saw  about  42,293,205  sheep 
shorn,  aceo-rding  to  statistics  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Wool  Manufacturers.  In  five  years  there 
has  been  an  increase  of  about  4,000,000  sheep. 
Doubtless  the  hard  winter  of  1909-10,  with  the  sub- 
sequent poor  lambing,  cut  these  figures  down  materi- 
ally. It  is  notable,  however,  that  there  has  been  a 
great  deal  of  restocking  of  eastern  farms  by  sheep 
brought  from  the  ranges.  In  the  main,  the  results 
secured  have  been  good,  yet  the  high  prices  for  grain 
have  caused  such  a  general  plowing  up  of  pastures 
that  the  movement  to  restock  the  East  with  sheep 
has  been  a  very  noticeable  one,  except  in  particular 
regions  like  parts  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  the 
Virginias,  where  early  lambs  are  grown  in  consider- 
able numbers. 

.'if The  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers 
supplies  the  following  figures :  Montana,  5,000,000 ; 
Wyoming,  4,800,000 ;  New  Mexico,  3,200,000 ;  Idaho, 
2,800,000;  Ohio,  2,500,000;  Utah,  2,200,000;  Oregon, 
1,850,000;  California,  1,900,000;  Texas,  1,325,000; 
Colorado,  1,450,000;  Michigan,  1,500,000;  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1,000,000;  New  York,  825,000;  Washington, 
450,000 ;  Nevada,  875,000 ;  Arizona,  825,000 ;  Indiana, 
850,000;  North  Dakota,  650,000;  Iowa,  700,000;  Mis- 
souri, 873,000 ;  Wisconsin,  850,000 ;  Illinois,  700,000 ; 
Kentucky,  750,000.  All  other  states  each  below  600,- 
000.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  comparison  with  the 
ranges  the  states  make  rather  a  small  showing  in 
the  sheep  industry,  Ohio  and  Michigan  excepted.  The 
fact  of  free  grass  upon  the  western  ranges  and  the 


16  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

general  healthfulness  of  flocks  in  that  arid  region 
have  had  a  deterring  influence  upon  the  sheep  in- 
dustry in  the  old  farming  states.  Now,  however, 
that  the  ranges  seem  unable  to  supply  the  mutton 
that  is  demanded  by  our  consumers  it  is  time  to  for- 
get their  menace  and  to  take  up  again  our  old  trade 
of  shepherding  on  our  eastern  farms. 

There  are  several  excellent  reasons  why  this  is  a 
rational  and  promising  industry  in  which  to  embark. 
The  ranges  are  now  fully  stocked  with  cattle  and 
sheep.  To  increase  the  numbers  of  sheep  means  to 
drive  out  more  cattle  and  this  the  cattle  men  are  re- 
sisting by  armed  force.  On  many  of  the  drier  ranges 
the  sheep  have  overpastured  the  grass  till  much  of  it 
has  been  destroyed  root  and  branch,  and  thus  its  car- 
rying power  is  much  decreased.  Settlers  are  taking 
the  land  in  every  irrigable  valley  and  fencing  it,  and 
there  is  thus  in  every  way  a  steady  diminution  in 
the  numbers  of  sheep  on  the  ranges.  Nor  can  it  be 
seen  how  this  may  be  checked  and  their  numbers 
made  to  increase,  seeing  that  alfalfa  forms  almost 
the  sole  forage  grown  in  that  arid  region — and  this 
is  not  a  crop  suited  to  careless  grazing  of  large 
bands  of  sheep  by  hireling  herders. 

Consider  again  that  the  prejudice  that  at  one  time 
existed  against  mutton  eating  has  almost  died  away. 
The  cities  are  eating  all  the  mutton  that  they  can 
get  and  are  paying  for  it  often  more  than  they  are 
paying  for  beef  or  pork.  There  are  doubtless  several 
excellent  reasons  for  this.  Fashion  is  one.  The 
fact  that  crowds  of  our  people  visit  England  every 


INTRODUCTION  17 

year  leads  them  to  form  the  "lamb  chop"  habit. 
Mutton  is  better  fattened  and  prepared  than  for- 
merly. There  is  offered  a  very  much  greater  supply 
of  lamb  mutton  than  of  mutton  from  old  sheep,  and 
that  helps.  Then  the  old-time  type  of  small,  wrinkly, 
thin-fleshed  sheep  has  about  disappeared  and  that 
helps.  There  is  a  demand  for  lambs  from  babyhood 
up  to  a  year  of  age,  well  fattened;  there  is  demand 
for  mature  mutton.  Whether  the  packers  have  or 
have  not  controlled  the  price  of  beef  they  have  not 
been  able  or  desirous  of  keeping  down  the  price  of 
mutton.  For  ten  years  feeders  of  lambs  have  pros- 
pered exceedingly,  with  occasional  discouragements, 
and  there  is  no  prospect  of  the  production  of  good, 
well-finished  mutton  being  overdone  for  some  years 
to  come.  It  cannot  be  overdone  until  one  or  two 
things  happen,  either  the  American  people  must 
come  into  calamitous  days  or  a  great  number,  of 
farmers  must  turn  shepherds  and  learn  the  business 
from  the  ground  up.  Neither  of  these  things  will 
happen  soon.  Sheep  husbandry  is  not  difficult  but  it 
requires  close  attention  to  details  and  that  we  will 
not  many  of  us  give.  The  few  who  will  patiently 
learn  the  art  will  therefore  prosper  the  more  exceed- 
ingly. 

It  is  a*  cheerful  thought  to  look  forward  to  the  day 
when  well-kept,  happy  flocks  will  abound  in  our  land. 
Then  weeds  will  disappear  to  be  replaced  by  luxu- 
riant grass  and  forage  crops.  Then  trim  fields,  each 
with  its  appropriate  green  growth,  will  be  dotted 
with  snowy-fleeced  ewes  and  plump,  rollicking  lambs, 


18  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

each  one  a  picture  of  health  and  thrift;  shepherds' 
neat  cottages  will  shelter  an  intelligent  and  thrifty 
class  of  farm  laborers,  great  piles  of  manure  will  be 
accumulated  in  winter  time  to  replenish  the  old 
fields,  the  farm  boys  will  find  enough  to  do  and  suffi- 
cient encouragement  for  doing  it  and  will  remain  on 
the  farms,  and  then  agriculture  will  be  truly  an  up- 
building, a  creation  of  fertility  and  farms  where  now 
there  is  little  of  profit  left  to  country  dwellers. 

Let  no  one  imagine-,  however,  that  these  blessings 
follow  the  mere  fact  of  buying  a  flock  and  placing  it 
upon  the  farm.  ' l  Sheep  are  ever  an  unhappy  flock, ' ' 
remarked  an  old  Eoman  agriculturist,  and  in  no  oth- 
er stock  can  the  ignorant  or  heedless  farmer  have  so 
great  a  variety  of  misfortunes  as  with  the  sheep. 
Few  of  these  troubles  are  unavoidable.  It  is  to  point 
the  way  to  success  and  to  indicate  the  rough  places 
that  this  little  book  is  written. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  great  change  has  come 
over  country  life.  The  old  intimacy  between  the 
farmer  and  his  men,  the  farmer  and  his  fields,  the 
farmer  and  his  animals,  has  to  an  extent  gone,  per- 
haps forever.  Nevertheless,  the  farmer  who  under- 
takes to  keep  sheep  with  profit  must  go  back  to  the 
ways  of  his  fathers  and  his  boyhood,  he  must  culti- 
vate an  acquaintance  with  the  individuals  in  his 
flock,  must  learn  to  know  instantly  by  sight  whether 
or  no  they  are  in  health,  must  have  their  confidence 
so  that  he  can  without  much  trouble  catch  them 
afield,  by  aid  of  the  shepherd's  crook  or  a  bit  of  salt 
or  a  handful  of  shelled  corn.  Fortunately  this  inti- 


INTRODUCTION  19 

macy  is  a  delight  as  well  as  a  source  of  profit.  ' '  The 
eye  of  the  Master  fattens  the  flock. "  Hired  shep- 
herds may  be  faithful,  but  they  need  the  suggestions 
and  the  inspiration  that  come  from  wise  co-opera- 
tion of  the  employer.  Best  of  all,  shepherds  are  the 
men  who  own  the  sheep.  It  is  a  delightful  occupa- 
tion and  one  that  interests  the  young.  There  is  room 
for  labor,  for  thought,  for  growth  in  this  work. 
Some  of  the  happiest  hours  and  most  helpful  the 
author  has  ever  known  have  been  spent  in  working 
among  his  ewes  and  lambs,  or  seated  beneath  a  tree 
watching  them  graze  in  the  cool  of  the  evening  or 
seeing  the  lambs  scamper  up  and  down  the  hillsides. 
Strong  men  have  come  from  tending  sheep.  Young 
David  watched  his  father's  flocks  and  in  his  zeal 
slew  the  lion  and  the  bear  that  would  have  destroyed 
them.  Gazing  from  his  hill  ranges  afar  out  over  the 
land  he  learned  to  love  it  well,  so  that  the  day  came 
when  he  emerged  from  the  solitude  of  the  sheep 
pastures  to  be  the  one  who  should  redeem  Israel  from 
bondage.  Let  us  hope  that  in  our  own  times  young 
men  may  be  found  who  while  working  with  the  gentle 
ewes  and  innocent  lambs  may  from  these  scenes  of 
peace  absorb  sufficient  love  of  home,  country  and 
native  land  that  they  may  come  forth  strong  to  help 
in  the  redemption  and  upbuilding  of  their  country. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 

Since  this  book  was  first  put  out  a  good  deal  has 
been  learned  concerning  practical  sheep  manage- 
ment. The  problem  of  the  internal  parasite,  that 


20  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

terror  that  devastated  eastern  flocks,  has  been  nearly 
solved,  and  the  author  has  had  the  pleasure  of  pre- 
senting in  this  second  edition  a  plan  of  flock  man- 
agement that  will  surely  avoid  the  disasters  that 
follow  in  the  trail  of  the  insidious  foe  and  insure 
keeping  a  flock  in  beautiful  health  and  vigor. 

Of  a  life  somewhat  filled  with  work  and  thought, 
the  writer  feels  this  is  his  chief  fruit  and  it  cheers 
him  to  think  that  perhaps  he  may  be  able  to  cause 
fine,  healthy,  happy  flocks  to  grow  where  none  grow 
now,  or,  worse,  where  sickly  and  unhappy  sheep  are. 

Of  a  multitude  of  friends  the  writer  feels  that  the 
ones  nearest  his  heart  are  the  grave  and  careful 
shepherds  who,  loving  their  flocks  better  than  their 
ease,  make  little  lambs  to  grow  and  play,  unafraid, 
who  lead  their  sheep  safely  and  feed  them  wisely, 
and  who  themselves  are  led  by  their  life  of  solicitous 
care  nearer  the  good  Shepherd  of  us  all. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THIRD  EDITION. 

I  sit  to  write  this  on  the  good  ship  Verdi,  bound  for 
South  America,  a  land  of  many  sheep.  Several  years 
have  elapsed  since  the  second  edition  was  put  before 
the  reader,  and  in  that  time  I  have  learned  some 
things  new  and  have  had  old  beliefs  more  strong- 
ly confirmed.  The  past  winter  (1911)  has  been  spent 
in  journeying  from  farm  to  farm  among  the  sheep 
breeders  of  Michigan,  Ohio  and  the  Virginias.  I 
have  been  impressed  very  strongly  with  the  fact  that 
the  art  of  keeping  sheep  is  a  simple  art  that  almost 
anyone  can  master;  that  the  profit  of  the  flock  de- 


INTRODUCTION  21 

pends  more  on  the  shepherd  than  on  the  breed  or  lo- 
cation; that  well-kept  flocks  of  sheep  bring  to  any 
land  much  fertility,  and  to  the  farm  homes  a  good 
share  of  comforts  and  prosperity. 

There  is  money  in  keeping  sheep  when  one  keeps 
them  right ;  there  are  loss  and  discouragement  when 
one  keeps  them  otherwise.  The  shepherd  can  and 
will  make  money  with  his  flock  if  he  keeps  it  healthy, 
uses  good  rams,  at  the  right  time  of  year,  feeds  well 
and  not  too  well,  especially  if  he  feeds  the  lambs  well. 

My  work  for  some  months  has  been  to  ascertain 
the  cost  of  producing  a  pound  of  wool.  In  prosecut- 
ing this  search  it  was  necessary  to  take  into  account 
every  item  of  expense,  with  all  details  of  manage- 
ment, then  to  take  account  of  sales  of  wool  and  mut- 
ton and  value  of  manure  left.  It  proved  a  most  in- 
teresting and  indeed  fascinating  task.  Not  to  go 
here  into  detail,  I  will  merely  say  that  one  man 
would  come  far  short  if  receiving  from  his  lambs 
and  wool  what  his  feed  was  worth,  with  a  moderate 
pay  for  his  services  charged,  while  his  immediate 
neighbor  under  quite  similar  conditions  would  make 
from  his  flock  a  substantial  profit.  The  whole  dif- 
ference lay  in  management — in  knowing  how. 

The  mistakes  that  most  often  led  to  loss  in  sheep 
breeding  were,  first  and  most  deadly,  letting  the 
sheep  become  parasitic  by  keeping  them  too  much 
on  the  same  pasture  or  by  other  mistakes  in  manage- 
ment; next,  in  feeding  too  poorly,  so  that  the  ewes 
came  to  lambing  time  poorly  nourished  and  without 
milk,  which  resulted  in  a  poor  lambing  and  a  small 


22  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

increase.  Then  came  next  the  failure  to  feed  the 
lambs  well  and  get  a  good  thing  from  the  mutton. 
Another  blunder  occasionally  committed  was  too  ex- 
pensive feeding  in  winter,  resulting  in  running  the 
cost  too  high.  Too  much  feed  is  as  bad  as  too  little ; 
indeed  it  is  worse,  as  it  hurts  the  flock  and  hurts  the 
pocketbook  as  well. 

A  frequent  source  of  loss  was  careless  feeding  of 
forage  in  winter.  Eacks  so  made  that  ewes  pulled 
the  hay  through  between  narrow  openings  filled  with 
hay  will  be  emptied  within  a  few  hours,  no  matter 
how  much  is  put  in  them;  whereas  racks  made  so 
that  ewes  can  thrust  their  heads  in  and  eat  will 
hardly  be  emptied  before  the  hay  is  all  eaten.  I 
found  one  man  who  fed  4  pounds  of  hay  daily  to 
each  of  his  ewes,  say  700  pounds  per  head  during 
winter.  This  alone  would  cost  about  $3.50,  and  this 
man  also  fed  more  than  1  pound  of  grain  per  day 
to  each  ewe,  or  more  than  $2  worth  of  grain.  Add  to 
this  expense  his  cost  of  summer  keep,  and  it  is  clear 
that  he  is  not  making  much  money  in  the  sheep  busi- 
ness. Other  men  near  by  found  their  ewes  maintain 
well  with  i/2  pound  of  grain  daily  and  2  pounds  or 
less  of  hay.  It  is  clear  that  the  men  who  fed  with 
the  Jess  expense  made  the  more  profit. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  no  experiment  station  has 
thus  far  determined  the  correct  amount  of  feed  for 
a  breeding  flock  in  winter  when  only  economical 
maintenance  with  the  greatest  profit  is  desired.  My 
own  studies  have  convinced  me  that  there  is  here  a 
great  field  for  experiment.  Breeds  differ  very  wide- 


INTRODUCTION  23 

ly  too,  and  especially  does  it  matter  enormously 
whether  the  sheep  are  parasitic  or  not.  If  free  from 
parasites,  and  in  good  heart  in  the  fall,  the  ewe  flock 
can  keep  in  good  heart  all  winter  on  half  the  feed 
that  would  be  required  if  the  sheep  were  gnawed  in- 
ternally by  worms. 

The  result  of  my  investigations  has  served  won- 
derfully to  confirm  and  strengthen  my  faith  in  Me- 
rino blood  as  having  great  possibilities  of  profit  for 
eastern  farmers.  Merinos  are  hardy,  very  easily 
kept  (the  history  of  the  Merino  breed  since  we  know 
of  it  has  been  a  story  of  hardships  and  sparse  feed- 
ing), and  fairly  resistant  to  parasites.  This  last 
feature  is  the  one  that  most  commends  the  Merino 
to  eastern  farmers.  There  can  be  no  question  that 
these  sheep  will  be  in  health  and  vigor  under  condi- 
tions that  would  play  havoc  with  sheep  of  any  of  the 
English  breeds.  If  then  the  most  "  muttony  "  of  the 
Merinos  are  chosen  (Delaines,  Blacktops  or  Ram- 
bouillets),  one  can  get  from  them  lambs  that  fatten 
right  well  (not  near  so  easily  as  Southdowns,  Dor- 
sets  or  Hampshires  in  health,  but  better  than  these 
when  parasitic),  and  the  lambs  get  large  enough  to 
weigh  as  much  as  the  market  desires  at  this  time. 

When  good  Merino  ewes  were  crossed  with  good 
Down  or  Dorset  or  long-wool  rams,  the  result  was 
usually  a  fine  profit  from  the  year's  work.  The  dan- 
ger of  that  course  of  procedure  is  that  one  may  lose 
character  in  the  ewe  flock,  since  the  half-blood  ewes 
are  by  no  means  so  resistant  to  parasites  as  the 
pure-bred  ones;  nor  are  they  as  easy  keepers,  nor 


24  SHEEP  FARMING  IN   AMERICA 

usually  so  good  shearers ;  so  that  it  is  the  almost  uni- 
versal testimony  of  breeders  that  the  greatest  profit 
is  in  cross-breeding,  involving,  however,  keeping  the 
ewe  flock  pure,  either  by  keeping  two  rams  or  by 
purchase  from  time  to  time  of  pure  Merino  ewes. 

I  learned  the  curious  fact  that  the  most  highly- 
bred  of  the  Merinos,  those  of  the  bluest  blood  and 
heaviest-fleeced,  do  not  usually  in  the  hands  of  the 
farmer  make  the  most  profit.  At  present,  I  should 
say  that  for  all  the  region  of  the  cornbelt  and  south- 
ward, with  most  of  Michigan,  southern  Wisconsin 
and  Minnesota,  the  easiest  sort  of  shepherding  and 
the  greatest  chance  of  average  profit  are  in  keeping 
Merino  ewes  in  flocks  of  50  to  100  head,  choosing  the 
most  "  muttony "  of  the  Merinos,  valuing  them  more 
for  their  resistance  than  for  their  shearing  qualities, 
and  cross-breeding  them  with  good  rams  of  the  dis- 
tinctive mutton  breeds,  selling  all  of  the  cross-bred 
lambs  as  a  general  practice  and  keeping  the  ewe  flock 
pure  Merino. 

There  is  a  real  and  profitable  place  for  the  half- 
blood  Merino  ewe,  on  the  better-managed  sheep 
farms.  There  is  not  a  doubt  that  she  is  more  pro- 
lific than  the  pure  Merino,  a  better  mother  and  milk- 
er, shears  a  fleece  that  may  easily  be  worth  more 
than  the  pure  Merino  fleece,  and  unquestionably  her 
lambs  will  fatten  faster  than  those  from  pure-bred 
Merino  ewes.  They  will  be  heavier  too.  At  the  same 
time,  cross-bred  Merino  ewes  will  be  a  trifle  less  re- 
sistant of  parasites  and  will  consume  more  feed. 

Surveying  the  field,  it  seems  clear  that  there  is 


INTRODUCTION  25 

profit  in  sheep  breeding,  intelligently  done.  I  have 
seen  with  keen  delight  whole  neighborhoods  in  Michi- 
gan and  Ohio  where  each  farm  held  its  flock,  where 
great  barns  were  stored  with  forage,  the  ewes  be- 
neath, and  close  by  stood  comfortable  farmhouses  in 
which  I  found  intelligent  and  often  cultured  shep- 
herd folk.  The  future  holds  no  menace  but  hope  in- 
stead. Should  wool  tariffs  be  lowered  there  might 
possibly  be  a  small  decrease  in  the  numbers  of  sheep 
in  the  West.  This  would  in  ultimate  effect  cause 
mutton  values  considerably  to  enhance,  so  while  pos- 
sibly the  American  consumer  might  get  his  woolen 
clothing  cheaper  the  sheep-farmer  would  receive  as 
much  for  his  output  of  wool  and  mutton  as  ever  be- 
fore, and  it  might  well  be  that  he  would  receive 
more.  With  all  tariff  duties  removed,  we  might  pos- 
sibly sell  wool  for  15  cents  per  pound,  as  they  do 
in  Canada,  if  at  the  same  time  mutton  prices  were 
enhanced,  which  in  the  long  run  they  would  assured- 
ly be.  While  the  fleece  of  the  ewe  might  bring  us  70 
cents  less,  the  lamb  would  bring  us  from  85  cents  to 
$1.70  more,  and  the  income  from  the  farm  flock  be 
increased.  The  lesson  is  clear.  No  matter  what  ups 
and  downs  the  sheep  market  may  see  in  the  near 
future,  the  wise  sheep-owner  is  the  one  who  stays 
with  his  flock  and  seeks  only  to  make  it  better  and 
healthier  than  before.  His  reward  is  assured. 

One  of  the  interesting  results  of  my  investigation 
of  the  practices  of  sheep-farmers  in  Ohio,  Michigan 
and  the  South  was  that  experience  seems  against  the 
keeping  of  large  flocks  in  those  regions  except  for 


26  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

winter  feeding.  In  the  beginning  of  the  investiga- 
tion I  assumed  that  I  would  visit  usually  men  with 
100  or  more  breeding  ewes.  Later,  when  in  the  field, 
I  found  there  few  indeed  who  had  so  many  ewes 
as  that;  maybe  a  whole  county  would  show  no  more 
than  one  or  two  flocks  of  that  size.  I  learned  that 
experience  had  shown  that  on  the  general  farm 
where  sheep  were  kept  as  a  part  of  the  general  farm 
scheme  flocks  of  40  to  50  ewes  were  most  profitable, 
the  easiest  kept  free  from  parasites  and  returning 
the  most  lambs  and  the  heaviest  fleeces.  True,  there 
were  here  and  there  men  with  successful  flocks  of 
100  and  more,  but  they  were  the  exception.  They 
were  men  of  unusual  carefulness.  I  feel  therefore 
in  the  light  of  this  study  that  unless  one  is  prepared 
to  give  a  pasture  treatment  similar  to  that  outlined 
on  page  175,  he  will  be  wise  if  he  limits  his  ewe 
flock  to  about  50  ewes.  With  that  system  of  pasture 
management  I  should  not  hesitate  to  keep  400  ewes 
(the  common  number  given  a  shepherd  in  England), 
or  if  I  could  use  sown  crops  and  hurdles,  as  in  Eng- 
land, I  should  not  hesitate,  or  if  I  could  lamb  the 
ewes  very  early  in  winter,  preferably  in  fall,  then 
I  should  not  care  how  many  I  had,  so  I  had  fairly 
roomy  range  for  them  in  summer.  To  the  novice, 
the  beginner,  the  man  who  wishes  only  a  little  flock 
of  sheep  as  a  handy  thing  to  consume  some  forage, 
keep  the  farm  free  from  weeds  and  yield  a  tidy  profit 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  I  suggest  the  flock  of  40  ewes 
as  being  best  adapted  to  his  purpose  and,  decently 
cared  for,  certain  to  return  him  a  good  profit. 


CHAPTER  L 
THE  FINE-WOOL  BREEDS. 

It  is  not  thought  worth  while  to  present  here  ex- 
tensive accounts  of  the  various  breeds  of  sheep; 
however,  some  mention  must  be  made  of  the  char- 
acteristics pertaining  to  each.  Breeds  originate  from 
environment,  from  peculiar  characters  of  soil  and 
vegetation  and  climate,  and  from  the  mental  idio- 
syncrasies of  the  breeders  themselves.  Each  breed 
has  its  own  particular  field  where  it  serves  best  a 
certain  purpose.  For  all  that,  breeds  are  somewhat 
flexible  and  several  have  a  wide  range  of  adapta- 
bility. Conditions  of  market  and  of  environment 
make  some  breeds  more  profitable  than  others  in 
certain  locations.  What  would  pay  best  on  the  range 
in  some  remote  state,  where  wool  by  its  cheap  trans- 
portation brings  the  major  share  of  profit,  might  not 
pay  so  well  in  near  proximity  to  large  cities  where 
the  demand  is  for  quick-maturing  mutton.  Inverse- 
ly, sheep  are  not  suited  to  range  conditions  that  are 
not  good  shearers,  good  to  "herd,"  that  is,  having 
the  mental  trait  that  makes  them  stay  close  to- 
gether and  an  ability  to  withstand  occasional  times 
of  starvation.  On  the  farm  the  utility  to  live 
through  hard  winters  on  sparse  allowance  of  food 

(27) 


28  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

is  not  a  qualification  worth  taking  into  account. 
Farmers  are  equipped  with  shelter  and  food  for 
their  flocks. 

MERINO  SHEEP. 

Probably  the  oldest  races  of  domesticated  sheep 
are  the  various  families  of  Merinos.  Most  they  have 
felt  the  molding  hand  of  man,  most  they  seem  to 
diverge  from  any  wild  type  of  which  we  have  knowl- 
edge. Very  likely  Merinos  were  kept  in  Palestine 
during  bible  times,  and  it  may  be  that  King  David 
when  a  lad  watched  beside  a  flock  of  Merinos.  Under 
the  hand  of  man  they  have  suffered  a  degeneration 
in  form,  not  being  as  hardy,  as  vigorous  or  full  of 
stamina  as  any  wild  race  of  sheep  now  in  existence. 
Merinos,,  however,  have  gained  two  very  important 
and  valuable  characteristics :  ability  to  subsist  on 
little  feed  and  that  of  a  coarse  nature  and  compara- 
tive resistance  to  internal  parasites.  This  latter 
feature  is  really  one  of  priceless  worth  to  the  farm- 
er of  the  cornbelt  where  the  stomach  worm  ravages 
ceaselessly.  I  had  good  opportunity  in  the  winter 
of  1910-11  to  study  this  very  factor  in  flocks  of  sheep 
of  many  breeds  in  Ohio  and  Michigan,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  Tennessee.  I  was  continually  amazed  to 
see  the  fine  strung  flocks  of  Delaine,  Blacktop  and 
Rambouillet  Merinos,  heads  up,  eyes  bright,  skins 
as  pink  as  cherries,  yet  received  very  indifferent 
care  indeed  either  in  way  of  pasture,  management 
or  feeding.  Surrounding  these  flocks  I  would  find 
others  of  the  mutton  breeds  in  far  less  healthy  con- 
dition, showing  often  very  plainly  the  ravages  of 


THE  FINE-WOOL  BREEDS 


29 


the  dreadful  stomach  worm.  Merinos  are  by  no 
means  proof  against  parasites  but  they  are  far  more 
resistant  than  are  any  of  the  breeds  of  English  ori- 
gin. The  place  for  the  Merino,  its  great  use,  is  not 
so  much  as  a  producer  of  wool  alone,  as  it  has  been 
used  in  old  days,  but  as  a  hardy  farm  sheep,  pro- 
ducing both  wool  and  mutton.  The  wool  of  the  Me- 


TWO-YEAE-OLD    AMERICAN    MERINO    RAM.  , 

rino  is  the  finest  and  for  many  purposes  easily  the 
best  in  the  world.  It  should  command  the  highest 
price  and  usually  does.  Merino  breeders  in  the 
eastern  states,  however,  must  compete  with  pro- 
ducers of  wool  in  remote  and  semi-savage  lands, 
Australia,  Argentina,  Patagonia,  the  Falkland 
Islands  and  parts  of  our  own  great  West. 


30  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

Breeders  of  Merino  sheep  have  followed  many 
fashions  and  some  that  were  their  undoing.  At  one 
time  the  aim  was  to  secure  a  fleece  of  extreme  fine- 
ness, though  by  this  course  was  secured  a  sheep  of 
little  stamina  and  of  small  value  for  mutton  produc- 
tion. Again  the  aim  sought  was  an  excessive  amount 
of  oil  or  "yolk"  in  the  fleece,  which  made  it  heavier. 
This  weakened  the  sheep,  made  it  sensitive  to  cold 
weather  and,  curiously  enough,  as  the  weight  of 
yolk  increased  in  the  wool,  manufacturers  kept  apace 
of  the  fact  in  buying,  and  by  paying  for  it  on  a 
scoured  basis  there  was  nothing  at  all  gained  to 
the  grower  who  sold  the  excessive  grease.  A  manu- 
facturer once  related  to  the  writer  how  in  the  palmy 
days  of  heavy  fleeces  a  celebrated  ram's  fleece  was 
brought  to  him  to  be  scoured ;  it  weighed  45  pounds, 
was  probably  of  18  or  24  months'  growth  and  made 
less  than  12  pounds  of  scoured  wool!  The  farmer 
then  had  wasted  food  enough  to  produce  more  than 
30  pounds  of  a  product  of  little  utility ;  in  fact,  be- 
ing only  a  drain  on  the  strength  of  the  animal  that 
produced  it.  It  is  of  course  essential  that  wool 
should  have  a  sufficient  amount  of  this  yolk  to  pre- 
serve the  fiber ;  more  than  this  is  a  damage  in  every 
way. 

It  would  seem  that  now  the  fads  in  Merino  sheep 
have  nearly  disappeared  and  the  breeders  of  the 
present  time  are  breeding  useful  Merinos,  with  gen- 
erally more  size  and  better  forms  and  more  of  mut- 
ton quality  than  was  once  seen. 

The  importance  of  the  Merino  breed  will  be  rec- 


THE  FINE- WOOL  BREEDS  31 

ognized  when  it  is  remembered  that  about  30,000,000 
of  the  sheep  of  the  United  States  are  of  Merino 
foundation.  The  Merino  is  the  sheep  of  the  range 
country,  hardy  in  large  herds,  of  long  life,  though 
of  slow  maturity,  able  to  withstand  more  of  "  grief " 
than  the  mutton  breeds,  and,  most  important  to  the 
ranchmen,  holding  their  fleeces  to  quite  an  age, 
whereas  under  range  conditions  mutton  breeds  soon 
become  light  shearers.  However,  it  is  not  now  be- 
lieved among  western  ranchmen  that  the  Merino 
should  be  bred  pure  for  their  purpose.  They  use 
large  numbers  of  mutton  rams  and  aim  to  keep  in 
all  their  ewes  a  strain  of  mutton  blood,  from  %  to 
i/>,  which  they  find,  makes  the  ewes  better  mothers, 
being  more  prolific  and  having  a  stronger  milk  flow. 
Lambs  from  such  ewes,  sometimes  from  pure-bred 
mutton  rams,  form  the  major  part  of  the  supplies 
received  in  our  great  markets  from  August  till  June. 
A  flock  of  ewes  from  Merino  mothers  and  good  sires 
of  one  of  the  mutton  breeds  is  almost  ideal  for  use 
upon  the  farm,  hardy,  healthy,  great  milkers,  good 
shearers.  When  again  topped  by  blocky,  mutton- 
bred  sires  they  produce  lambs  that  are  hard  to  excel. 

AMERICAN   MERINOS. 

There  are  a  number  of  families  of  Merinos.  The 
American  breeders  divide  them  into  three  general 
classes — the  Spanish  or  American  Merino,  the 
smallest  in  size  and  heaviest  in  fleece  of  any;  these 
sheep  were  once  excessively  wrinkled  (wool  grows 
upon  wrinkles,  thus  the  wool-bearing  capacity  is  in- 


32  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

creased).  They  usually  have  a  considerable  amount 
of  yolk  in  the  wool,  though  by  no  means  the  ex- 
cessive amount  that  was  once  common.  During  re- 
cent years  the  American  Merino  has  undergone 
quite  an  evolution,  obedient  to  the  command  of  its 
breeders,  and  has  a  better  developed  leg,  a  stronger 
back,  a  better  sprung  rib,  more  vigor  and  stamina 
than  before  and  has,  I  think,  lost  little  in  fleece- 
bearing  powers. 

The  American  Merinos  are  the  most  highly  spe- 
cialized of  all  sheep,  their  wool  being  best  and  most 
abundant.  Their  breeders  do  not  claim  that  they 
are  mutton  sheep,  though  they  do  make  good  mut- 
ton ;  but  not  so  profitably  as  some  lighter  shearing 
breeds. 

The  American  Merino  reached  perhaps  its  great- 
est development  in  Vermont;  in  fact,  it  has  often 
been  called  the  "Vermont  Merino. "  The  object  of 
its  breeders  was  to  produce  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  fleece  to  a  given  weight  of  carcass.  Nat- 
urally excessive  wool-bearing  somewhat  weakened 
the  constitutions  of  the  sheep  and  in  a  sense  they 
deteriorated,  so  far  as  prolificacy,  motherliness  and 
fattening  powers  went.  Nevertheless,  sheep  of  this 
type  when  crossed  on  thin-wooled  sheep  of  unim- 
proved races  did  wonders  in  improvement.  Many 
American  Merinos  were  exported  to  Australia  and 
South  Africa,  and  in  Australia  many  sheep  are  of 
this  very  heavy-wooled  type. 

American  Merinos  are  not  bred  in  the  United 
States  except  by  a  few  breeders;  their  market  is 


THE  FINE-WOOL  BREEDS  33 

still  Australia  or  for  cross-breeding  on  larger  Me- 
rinos where  the  wool  has  become  light  or  thin.  The 
breed  has  a  marvelous  history  and  the  work  of  the 
American  Merino  breeders  is  one  of  which  we  may 
well  be  proud.  Unquestionably  great  improvement 
was  worked  in  the  breed  after  bringing  it  from 
Spain  to  America. 

DELAINE    MEKINOS  AND  BLACK   TOPS. 

These  two  families  have  been  bred  by  selection 
from  the  original  Spanish ;  the  Black  Tops  from  the 
importation  of  1802,  the  Delaines  from  the  Black 
Top  foundation,  with  some  outcrosses  of  other  Me- 
rino blood.  The  idea  in  developing  these  two  fami- 
lies has  been  to  secure  a  larger  sheep  than  the  orig- 
inal Merino,  a  better  feeder,  a  hardier  sheep  and 
with  a  "Delaine"  wool.  This  wool  should  have 
parallel  fibers  of  sufficient  length  for  combing  pur- 
poses. There  is  unquestionable  merit  in  these  sheep 
and  in  the  hands  of  some  breeders  they  approach 
closely  to  the  mutton  type  without  losing  their  valu- 
able fleeces.  Delaines  are  hardy,  healthy  when 
rightly  managed,  their  lambs  from  mutton  sires  are 
superior  for  the  market  and  a  well-managed  flock 
of  either  Delaines  or  Black  Tops  has  never  been  un- 
profitable. The  name  "Black  Top"  was  given  by 
the  originator  of  the  type  because  his  best  sheep 
had  a  dark  crust  on  the  outside  of  the  fleece  com- 
posed of  oil  and  dirt,  this  crust  keeping  out  weather 
and  serving  to  shelter  the  sheep. 

The  Blacktop  sheep  is  essentially  an  American 


34  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

breed,  nothing  just  like  it  being  found  elsewhere. 
That  it  has  not  overspread  all  the  region  of  the  corn- 
belt  is  singular,  since  it  has  great  merit.  I  found 
these  sheep  almost  lost  and  forgotten  in  Michigan 
and  parts  of  Ohio  during  my  investigations  for  the 
Tariff  Board,  and  found  them  in  some  neighbor- 
hoods in  great  numbers,  constituting  indeed  nearly 
the  whole  mass  of  sheep  kept  in  the  country.  Al- 
most without  exception,  I  found  them  healthy  and  in 
fine,  strong  condition,  whole  flocks  of  them  shearing 
10  pounds  per  head  and  their  lambs  weighing  with 
light  feeding  at  8  to  10  months  old  85  pounds  each, 
and  that  is  as  heavy  as  the  market  approves.  When 
the  Blacktop  ewes  were  bred  to  rams  of  one  of  the 
English  breeds  their  lambs  were  very  much  heavier 
and  finer,  weighing  often  100  pounds  at  8  months 
of  age. 

The  most  striking  fact  concerning  these  sheep, 
however,  was  that  they  rarely  showed  signs  of  para- 
sites, whereas  flocks  of  other  breeds  were  often 
badly  infested.  Blacktops  have  been  developed  by 
men  who  were  not  liberal  feeders.  For  hundreds 
of  years  these  sheep  lived  on  coarse  and  often  scanty 
fare.  While  the  well-fed  flocks  looked  best  and  made 
the  most  profit,  yet  I  saw  many  flocks  that  subsisted 
in  winter  mainly  on  straw,  a  little  corn  fodder,  a 
very  little  hay  and  a  wee  bit  of  grain  before  lambing. 
I  am  certain  that  none  of  the  English  breeds  could 
subsist  on  such  fare  without  coming  to  sure  ruin. 

The  reader  may  well  wonder  why  these  sheep  have 
not  received  fame  and  honor  before  now.  Tardv 


THE  FINE-WOOL  BREEDS 


35 


36  SHEEP   FARMING    IN   AMERICA 

though  the  day  is,  I  look  to  see  them  overspread  the 
farms  of  the  cornbelt  and  have  classes  at  state  fairs 
and  at  the  International.  Certain  it  is  that  if  their 
breeders  shake  off  their  apathy  and  begin  to  let  the 
world  know  the  value  of  their  breed,  as  have  the 
breeders  of  Shropshires,  Dorsets,  Hampshires  and 
Eambouillets,  the  Blacktops  and  Delaines  will  yet 
come  into  their  own. 

The  reader  may  here  well  inquire,  Which  is  the 
best  of  the  Merinos  for  me  to  breed,  the  one  with 
most  profit? 

The  best  Merinos  are  the  Rambouillets,  especially 
when  of  the  Von  Homeyer  type.  Large,  strong 
mothers  and  good  milkers,  good  shearers  and  hardy, 
they  would  seem  to  surpass  all  Merinos  and  rival 
the  English  breeds.  For  use  on  the  ranges  they 
are  clearly  the  best,  as  there  a  large,  strong  sheep, 
able  to  travel  far,  is  needed.  On  the  farm  it  is  nip 
and  tuck  in  point  of  profit  between  the  Eambouillet 
and  the  Blacktop  and  Delaine  types.  The  Blacktop 
breeders  claim,  with  considerable  evidence,  that 
their  sheep  consume  far  less  feed,  shear  better  and 
their  lambs  mature  earlier  than  Eambouillets.  I 
think  the  claim  that  the  Eambouillets  require  more 
feed  than  other  Merinos  is  well  founded;  it  is  in- 
deed the  product  of  high  feeding  for  many  years.  It 
is  assuredly  true  that  the  massive  Rambouillet  has 
not  been  able  to  displace  the  little  Blacktop  on  the 
farms  of  Michigan.  Even  when  a  splendid  flock  of 
Eambouillets  might  be  surrounded  by  flocks  of 
Blacktops,  the  two  types  seemed  rarely  interbred. 


THE  FINE-WOOL  BREEDS  37 

For  all  that,  the  Eambouillets  are  a  splendid  breed 
and  well  capable  of  making  great  profit.  They  are 
little  less  resistant  to  parasites  than  the  Delaines 
and  Blacktops,  needing  a  little  more  feed  and  do  not 
shear  proportionally  quite  so  much  wool. 

Delaines  differ  greatly.  There  are  breeders  who 
do  not  hesitate  to  slip  into  them  a  dash  of  American 
Merino  or  of  Eambouillet  blood.  It  is  to  be  feared 
that  either  course  would  bring  confusion  in  the  long- 
run.  The  American  Merino  blood  would  lessen  pro- 
lificacy and  the  feeding  powers  of  the  sheep.  The 
heaviest-shearing  Blacktops  and  Delaines  have  not 
the  greatest  possibilities  for  profits  for  the  farmer. 
There  must  be  a  happy  mean  between  production  of 
wool  and  flesh ;  with  markets  as  they  now  are  the  fat 
lamb  far  outbalances  the  heavy  fleece. 

KAMBOUILLETS. 

Nearly  two  centuries  ago  the  French  government 
began  importing  Merino  ewes  from  Spain  and  then 
was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  breed  that  is  called 
the  "French  Merino, "  or  "Eambouillet,"  after  the 
village  in  France  where  the  stud  flock  has  been  kept. 
With  different  feeds,  different  ideals  and  selection, 
the  breed  has  become  quite  different  from  the  other 
families  of  Merinos,  having  much  greater  size  and 
a  different  type  of  wool,  with  coarser  fiber,  though 
yet  a  Merino  wool. 

The  Eambouillet  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  to- 
day of  all  the  Merinos,  great  numbers  being  found 
on  the  western  ranges  where  there  are  also  great 


38  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

breeding  establishments.  Here  thousands  of  pure- 
bred rams  are  grown.  Fashions  change  even  on  the 
ranges  and  at  present  there  is  inquiry  for  Delaines, 
and  many  rams  of  mixed  Delaine  and  Eambouillet 
blood  are  used,  besides  some  with  an  infusion  of  the 
blood  of  the  American  Merino.  Eambouillets  are 
truly  wonderful  sheep,  of  great  size  and  unlimited 
capacity  to  consume  food.  With  a  top  of  mutton 
rams  they  produce  great  lambs  or  make  superb 
wethers. 

Eambouillets  have  been  grown  profitably  for  50 
years  in  Ohio.  There  are  indeed  some  farms  that 
have  been  stocked  with  these  sheep  continuously  for 
that  length  of  time,  which  is  unusual  in  America. 
In  recent  years  the  breed  has  been  considerably  im- 
proved by  fresh  importations  and  by  careful  mat- 
ings,  so  that  both  form  and  fleece  are  better  than 
formerly.  The  eastern  Eambouillet  growers  have 
for  some  years  enjoyed  a  very  profitable  trade  in 
rams  which  they  have  sent  to  the  western  ranges. 
However,  the  large  western  breeders  are  absorbing 
much  of  that  trade  of  late,  so  that  only  the  choicest 
rams  are  in  demand  for  western  shipments.  A  good 
flock  of  Eambouillets  will  pay  for  their  wool  and 
mutton,  and  Eambouillet  ewes  make  a  most  admir- 
able basis  for  a  cross-bred  flock. 

Eambouillet  and  Delaine  Merino  ewes  have  the 
ability  to  conceive  early  and  drop  their  lambs  in  the 
fall  or  winter.  Many  Eambouillet  breeders  make  a 
practice  of  lambing  as  many  of  their  ewes  as  possi- 
ble in  the  fall  and  early  winter  months,  thus  getting 


THE  FINE- WOOL  BREEDS 


39 


40  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

the  young  things  forward  to  a  good  state  of  growth 
and  development  before  spring  and  summer  come  to 
bring  their  problems  of  management.  The  early 
lamb  is  often  worth  double  the  late  one,  because  of 
the  superior  healthfulness  and  vigor  of  the  early 
born  that  escape  the  troubles  of  parasitism,  so  dis- 
tressing to  those  of  late  birth. 

This  habit  of  early  weaning  also  comes  in  good 
hand  when  the  Merino  ewes  are  used  as  mothers  for 
cross-bred  "  hothouse "  lambs,  and  many  growers 
of  these  winter  months  use  Merino  mothers  though 
the  half-blood  Merino  ewe  is  better.  In  truth  she  is 
near  to  perfection  for  this  purpose. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  many  old  men  succeed 
fairly  well  with  Merinos  who  cannot  make  mutton 
sheep  thrive  at  all.  The  Merino  will  withstand 
more  neglect  than  the  English  breeds.  It  will  en- 
dure fairly  well  a  winter  ration  of  bright  straw 
and  a  little  added  grain  with  the  run  of  a  hill  pas- 
ture. Formerly  thousands  were  wintered  on  pas- 
ture with  no  feeding  at  all  throughout  the  hill  re- 
gions of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  It  was  thought 
that  if  they  had  access  to  hazel  brush,  where  they 
might  shelter  and  browse  a  little,  and  the  grass 
was  not  too  closely  cropped  in  fall  they  would  do 
well  enough.  Treated  in  this  manner  they  must 
lamb  late  in  the  spring,  and  they  do  survive  and 
shear  quite  good  fleeces,  whereas  any  breed  of  mut- 
ton sheep,  so  poorly  fed,  would  hardly  show  any 
profit  at  all. 

It  is  often  quite  difficult  for  men  who  have  spent 


THE  FINE- WOOL  BREEDS  41 

years  of  their  lives  growing  Merinos  under  the  let- 
alone,  outdoor  system  to  take  another  breed  and 
make  it  thrive  at  all.  They  cannot  bring  themselves 
to  give  the  feed,  shelter  and  attention  that  the  Eng- 
lish breeds  demand.  And  with  Merinos,  kindness 
and  care  are  usually  well  repaid.  There  are  hill  re- 
gions where  the  flock  may  be  out  of  doors  almost 
the  whole  year,  but  the  grazing  should  be  supple- 
mented by  a  regular  allowance  of  grain  or  early- 
cut  hay,  and  it  is  well  if  the  flock  can  be  sheltered 
from  chilling  winter's  rains. 

Merinos  live  to  a  greater  age  than  the  sheep  of 
other  breeds,  and  the  ewes  are  useful  up  to  an  age 
of  10  years  or  more.  They  also  retain  their  wool 
better,  so  that  one  can  count  on  getting  good  fleeces 
up  to  their  eighth,  tenth  or  even  twelfth  year,  while 
with  ewes  of  the  mutton  breeds  the  fleece  thins  and 
lightens  rapidly  after  the  fourth  year.  We  must 
have  the  English  breeds;  nothing  else  will  give  us 
the  early-maturing,  heavy-weighing,  juicy,  good-sell- 
ing lambs,  yet  there  is  hardly  room  for  doubt  that 
where  the  ewe  flock  is  of  either  pure  Merino  (De- 
laine, Blacktop  or  Eambouillet)  blood  or  has  an  ad- 
mixture of  that  blood  and  the  rams  are  downs,  Dor- 
sets  or  long-wools,  according  to  the  conditions  of 
the  sheep-grower,  the  greatest  profit  is  secured. 
Further,  there  is  not  a  question  that  under  Ameri- 
can conditions  where  flocks  of  coarse-wool  ewes  are 
kept,  and  the  wool  clip  is  too  light  and  the  thrift  of 
the  flock  somewhat  below  par,  an  infusion  of  Merino 
blood  by  the  use  of  a  good  "muttony"  Merino  ram 


42  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

would  work  wonders,  adding  to  the  wool  clip  on  the 
ewe  lambs  and  the  general  health  and  hardiness  of 
all  the  progeny. 


CHAPTER  II. 
MUTTON  BREEDS. 

All  of  our  breeds  excepting  the  Merinos,  Tunis 
and  Persians  come  from  England.  There  the  pe- 
culiar character  of  the  country  and  the  mental  traits 
of  the  people  have  united  to  create  a  number  of 
breeds,  each  having  its  especial  excellence  for  a  cer- 
tain purpose  and  soil.  The  Englishman's  ideal  in 
animal  form  runs,  as  it  does  in  architecture,  to  the 
square,  the  level,  the  rectangular.  His  sheep,  his 
beef  cattle  and  his  swine  all  partake  of  the  same 
characteristics  in  form0  To  successfully  judge  Me- 
rino sheep  one  must  be  a  student  of  the  breed;  to 
judge  the  mutton  breeds  practically  well  one  need 
only  to  know  what  is  a  good  animal,  after  the  model 
of  the  Angus  cow  or  the  Berkshire  hog.  Add  the 
wool  and  certain  fancy  points,  such  as  the  covering 
of  wool  over  the  head,  the  size  and  set  of  ear,  the 
shape  of  nose  and  the  coloring  and  all  is  told.  The 
novice  in  sheep  breeding,  if  he  knows  Angus  cattle 
or  Berkshire  or  Poland-China  swine,  need  have  no 
hesitation  in  attempting  to  select  a  flock  of  breeding 
ewes  if  he  can  see  them  without  their  fleeces.  In 
fact,  the  owner  will  betray  his  consternation  before 
the  novice  has  selected  half  a  dozen  and  remark, 

(43) 


44  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

11 You  may  not  know  much  about  sheep,  but  I  can't 
let  you  select  from  my  flock." 

The  English  breeds  are  naturally  divided  into 
classes  of  Downs,  Long- Wools  and  Mountain  breeds. 

THE  DOWNS. 

In  the  south  of  England  is  a  chain  of  chalky  hills, 
covered  with  fine,  short  grass.  Since  history  began 
there  has  been  on  these  hills  a  race  of  short-wooled 
sheep ;  in  their  early  history,  with  horns.  From  this 
old  type  has  come  the  Southdown,  the  Hampshire 
Down,  the  Sussex,  Oxford,  Shropshire  Downs  and 
the  Dorset  horned. 

SOUTHDOWNS. 

This  sheep  is  a  striking  illustration  of  what  the 
genius  of  man  can  do.  Before  the  day  of  George 
the  Third  the  unimproved  Downs  of  Sussex  were 
"of  small  size  and  bad  shape,  long  in  neck,  low  at 
both  ends,  light  in  shoulder,  narrow  at  the  fore  end, 
and  shaped  like  a  soda  water  bottle,  small  in  front 
and  heavier  in  the  middle ;  large  of  bone,  but  boast- 
ing a  big  leg  of  mutton.  The  fleece  was  not  so  close 
and  firm  as  now." 

Once  the  Southdown  was  horned,  but  now  there  is 
seldom  a  scur  to  remind  you  of  the  past.  Today  the 
breed  is  one  of  the  most  perfectly  formed  breeds  in 
existence.  The  size  is  but  medium  to  small,  but  so 
compact  and  thick-fleshed  are  these  sheep  and  so 
close  to  the  ground  that  their  weights  astonish  those 
who  are  unacquainted  with  the  breed.  The  South- 


MUTTON  BREEDS 


45 


46  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

down  lias  a  straight  back,  a  thick,  muscular  neck, 
bespeaking  vitality,  a  well-sprung  rib,  giving  a  ro- 
tundity of  form  and  a  well-filled  leg  of  mutton.  The 
character  of  the  mutton  is  of  the  best,  being  fine- 
grained, well  marbled  with  fat  and  lean  and  tender, 
sweet  and  juicy.  The  wool  is  short,  thick,  elastic, 
of  excellent  quality,  though  not  so  abundant  as  in 
some  breeds.  Southdowns  are  very  vigorous,  hardy, 
ambitious,  good  foragers,  good  feeders,  always  fat 
if  given  opportunity,  more  easily  kept  in  health  than 
some  breeds  and  the  rams  are  excellent  for  cross 
breeding,  especially  where  early  lambs  are  desired. 

There  are  not  so  many  breeders  of  Southdowns 
in  America  as  the  merit  of  the  breed  would  deserve. 
It  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  all  breeds  to  maintain  in 
high-class  condition.  There  is  little  tendency  to- 
ward deterioration,  though  there  is  great  difficulty 
in  bringing  about  change  or  improvement  in  type. 
This  is  no  doubt  owing  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the 
breed  is  absolutely  pure,  no  admixture  or  infusion 
of  other  blood  having  ever  taken  place.  Therefore, 
there  is  less  variation  of  type  and  it  is  easier  to 
have  a  flock  of  Southdowns  of  uniform  appearance 
and  character  than  of  most  breeds. 

In  Sussex  the  author  has  studied  Southdown  man- 
agement on  their  native  sod  and  observed  these 
features  of  their  practice:  Dry  ewes  in  summer 
time  were  often  grazed  on  the  hill  pastures,  but 
under  the  care  and  observation  of  shepherds  at  least 
part  of  every  day.  Ewes  suckling  lambs  were  in 
hurdles  eating  sowed  crops  of  clovers,  vetches  and 


MUTTON  BREEDS  47 

grass,  with  a  little  bit  of  grain,  while  the  lambs  "ran 
forward"  in  other  hurdle-enclosed  bits  of  grazing. 
As  protection  against  sun  the  lambs  had  small 
squares  of  canvas  stretched  over  the  corners  of 
their  pen.  The  lambs  got  a  full  allowance  of  "corn 
and  cake";  that  is,  grain  with  broken  linseed  oil 
cake  which  is  much  fed  in  that  country  and  seldom 
ground  into  meal.  The  lambs  were  as  fat  and  round 
as  little  pigs  and  were  sold  as  they  ripened,  week 
by  week,  on  the  London  market.  Of  this  system  of 
hurdle  grazing  we  will  speak  later  at  more  length. 

There  are  few  breeds  with  more  adaptability 
than  the  Southdown.  It  is  especially  useful  on  high- 
priced  land  and  near  markets  that  demand  fancy 
lamb  mutton.  Though  a  Southdown  flock  will  not 
shear  so  much  as  some  others  of  the  Down  family 
it  is  questionable  whether  there  is  a  more  profitable 
breed  for  the  production  of  fat  lambs  to  be  marketed 
either  from  their  mothers'  side  in  late  spring  or 
early  summer  or  to  be  fed  later  and  marketed  at  the 
age  of  eight  to  ten  months.  Their  smaller  size  is  in 
their  favor,  seeing  that  small  and  very  perfect  lambs 
well  finished,  command  a  premium  always.  South- 
down ewes  are  prolific  and  excellent  mothers,  and 
the  lambs  are  strong  at  birth. 

In  America  the  breeding  of  Southdown  sheep  is 
largely  confined  to  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Ohio  and 
Illinois.  They  are  especially  liked  in  the  southern 
states,  where  they  make  the  bulk  of  the  early  lamb 
mutton  coming  from  that  source.  They  have  not 
been  taken  much  to  the  ranges,  yet  in  1906  a  carlot 


48  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

of  cross-bred  Southdown  lambs  from  the  range 
country  was  shown  at  the  International  Live  Stock 
Exposition  so  wonderfully  good  that  it  is  doubtful 
whether  a  better  was  seen.  They  weighed  79  pounds 
and  won  the  championship  in  competition  with  cross- 
bred lambs  from  Shropshire,  Hampshire  and  other 
mutton-bred  sires.  To  my  eye  these  lambs  were 
easily  the  best  shown  that  year  and  demonstrated 
that  if  rangemen  would  test  Southdown  rams,  send- 
ing all  the  lambs  to  market,  they  would  find  no  cause 
of  complaint  in  the  results. 

SHROPSHIBES. 

Farther  to  the  north  in  England  originated  the 
Shropshire  sheep.  Not  unlike  many  pastures  of  our 
country  are  those  about  Shrewsbury,  affording 
strong  grass,  based  upon  limestone  and  clay  loams. 
The  Shropshire  had  its  origin  in  a  mingling  of  the 
bloods  of  native  black  or  brown-faced  and  horned 
sheep  called  from  its  habitat  the  "Morfe  Common 
sheep. "  They  were  small  and  bore  light  fleeces  of 
not  more  than  2  pounds.  Infusion  of  Leicester, 
Cotswold  and  Southdown  blood  worked  a  great 
change,  practically  obliterating  the  blood  of  the 
earlier  parents  and  bringing  at  first  great  diversity 
of  type.  Careful  selection  toward  a  pretty  well  de- 
fined ideal  had  by  1853  resulted  in  fixing  a  type  and 
it  was  then  advised  that  the  Royal  Agricultural  So- 
ciety recognize  them  as  a  distinct  breed.  Since  that 
time  they  have  gone  steadily  forward  in  improve- 
ment and  this  is  especially  notable  in  recent  years, 


MUTTON  BREEDS  49 

when  the  breed  seems  really  to  have  reached  its  ulti- 
mate perfection.  It  would  certainly  be  difficult  to 
suggest  any  desirable  modification  of  the  well-bred 
Shropshire  ?s_  form,  fleece  or  character.  The  breed 
is  perhaps  the  most  popular  in  the  world  today  and 
has  the  largest  number  of  registering  breeders. 

The  Shropshire  is  a  medium-sized  sheep,  rams 
weighing  from  175  to  225  pounds,  and  ewes  125  to 


wm 


FARM    TRAINING    FOR    THE    SHOW-RING. 

170  pounds.  They  shear  well,  considerably  better 
than  the  Southdown,  and  the  wool  is  of  excellent 
quality.  The  lambs  fatten  well  and  should  go  to 
market  from  their  mothers'  sides,  else  they  may 
reach  too  great  weights  for  the  top  of  the  market. 

The  Shropshire  ideal  in  form  is  close  to  that  of 
the  Southdown,  with  a  little  greater  size  and  a  dark- 
er head  and  legs,  though  not  so  dark  as  the  Hamp- 
shire or  Oxford  Downs.  The  fleece  is  longer  than 


50  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

in  the  Southdown  and  is  not  usually  so  close-set  or 
dense.  Certainly  there  is  no  more  beautiful  sight 
than  a  well-bred  and  well-kept  flock  of  Shropshires, 
the  fine  matronly  ewes  with  their  white  fleeces  set 
off  by  the  brown  of  heads,  ears  and  legs.  Their 
mutton  is  perhaps  not  quite  so  good  as  the  South- 
down, but  there  is  not  much  difference  in  this  re- 
spect, and  they  are  equally  prolific,  though  the 
lambs  may  not  have  quite  the  same  vigor  at  birth 
nor  do  they  usually  fatten  at  quite  so  early  an  age. 

The  one  difficulty  with  the  Shropshire  sheep  in 
America  is  the  careless  and  ignorant  shepherd  who 
permits  his  flock  to  become  infested  with  parasites 
or  allows  his  ewes  to  become  so  fat  that  they  do  not 
breed  well,  and  such  a  man  might  not  succeed  with 
any  breed. 

The  greatest  field  for  the  Shropshire  sheep  in  the 
United  States  is  to  furnish  sires  for  cross-breeding 
on  grade  or  pure-bred  Merinos.  Somewhat  safer 
than  the  Hampshire  in  use  on  Merino  ewes,  getting 
lambs  somewhat  heavier  than  the  Southdown,  the 
Shropshire  is  destined  to  very  extensive  use.  Half- 
blood  Shropshire  lambs  do  not  at  birth  have  too 
large  heads,  they  are  very  growthy  and,  well  fed, 
make  beautiful  specimens  and  command  good  prices. 
Where  the  half-blood  Shropshire  ewes  from  Merino 
dams  have  been  tried,  results  have  not  always  been 
satisfactory,  the  majority  of  breeders  favoring  send- 
ing all  the  half-blood  lambs  to  market  and  keeping 
the  character  of  the  ewe  flock  strongly  Merino,  this 
from  a  desire  for  a  good  yield  of  wool  and  because 


MUTTON  BREEDS  51 

of  their  greater  hardiness  and  ability  to  resist  para- 
sites. The  modern  Shropshire  is  so  wonderfully 
wooled  over  the  head  and  legs  it  is  suspected  that 
there  is  a  slight  infusion  of  Merino  blood  in  the 
breed  as  it  is  today.  The  diminishing  stature  would 
possibly  point  in  that  direction. 

HAMPSHIRES. 

The  study  of  how  this  great  breed  was  originated 
is  a  most  interesting  one,  though  rather  too  long 
and  complicated  to  be  entered  fully  into  here.  The 
Hampshire  is  the  result  of  skillful  mingling  of  the 
bloods  of  an  old  white-faced  horned  race,  called  the 
Wiltshire,  the  Southdown,  the  Sussex  and  probably 
the  Cotswold  breeds.  During  many  years  men 
worked  gradually  toward  an  ideal,  making  skillful 
matings  and  discarding  the  inferior  offspring  as 
well  as  those  which  went  toward  the  wrong  type. 
The  result  was  astonishing,  for  the  Hampshire 
breeds  now  remarkably  true  to  type  and  that  type 
quite  unlike  any  of  the  ancestry  involved  in  its  cre- 
ation. 

The  Hampshire  is  the  largest  and  heaviest  of  the 
Down  breeds,  and  is  only  excelled  by  the  Lincoln  in 
weight  and  occasionally  by  the  Cotswold,  among  the 
long-wooled  races.  It  has  dark  brown  or  black 
points,  with  bold  countenance,  and  a  large  ear,  set 
on  rather  low  and  standing  well  out  to  the  side.  The 
bone  is  large,  limbs  especially  strong  and  well  set 
on ;  fleece  fine  and  white.  It  presents  a  very  striking 
appearance,  the  rams  having  bold  Eoman  counte- 


52  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

nances,  and  the  ewes  characteristic  strong  but  femi- 
nine faces. 

The  Hampshire  is  essentially  the  sheep  for  the 
arable  farm,  fitted  by  long  habit  to  being  put  in 
hurdles,. able  to  consume  a  large  amount  of  food  and 
to  make  from  it  good  mutton  at  an  early  age.  The 
Hampshire  lamb  is  famed  for  its  early  maturity 
and  great  weight.  There  is  no  breed  that  exceeds 
the  Hampshire  in  this  respect.  Well  kept  Hamp- 
shires  are  among  the  most  profitable  sheep  in  the 
world. 

The  writer  recalls  with  great  pleasure  some  days 
spent  in  the  Hampshire  growing  country  of  Eng- 
land. It  was  much  of  it  a  soil  of  only  moderate 
fertility,  resting  on  chalk,  the  farms  of  fairly  good 
size.  One  especially  of  1,400  acres  he  recalls  to 
mind,  for  on  that  farm  were  2,500  magnificent 
Hampshire  sheep  and  lambs.  Most  of  them  were 
in  hurdles  and  following  the  hurdles  were  seen  great 
crops  of  grain. 

There  seemed  to  be  not  a  single  sheep  or  lamb 
on  this  farm  that  was  not  in  perfect  health  and 
vigor. 

A  man  ambitious  to  do  the  best  possible  thing 
with  sheep  can  take  up  the  Hampshire  breed  with 
good  courage,  for  they  have  in  them  possibilities  in 
the  way  of  great  and  rapid  growth  beyond  most 
breeds;  perhaps  beyond  any  other  breed.  On  the 
other  hand  few  breeds  degenerate  into  more  un- 
si.n-litly  "weeds"  than  tJadly  kept  and  diseased 
Hampshires.  The  Hampshire  ram  is  often  used  for 


MUTTON  BREEDS  53 

cross-breeding  and  gets  fine,  vigorous  lambs  nicely 
marked  with  black  points. 

At  present  Hampshires  are  enjoying  a  great  wave 
of  popularity,  and  justly  so.  In  Idaho  and  other 
western  states,  they  have  been  taken  in  large  num- 
bers, and  are  used  mainly  for  cross-breeding  on 
grade  Merino  ewes.  They  are  adapted  to  condi- 
tions where  ewes  can  have  good  winter  feed,  can 
lamb  early  and  afterward  go  to  juicy  mountain  pas- 
tures. The  lambs  by  Hampshire  rams  and  from 
smaller  ewes  are  somewhat  more  difficult  to  be  de- 
livered than  those  by  Shropshire  rams,  and  often  a 
little  personal  attention  may  save  the  life  of  both 
lamb  and  ewe.  Hampshires  are  in  use  too  among 
the  mountain  men  in  Virginia  who  breed  sheep  on 
rich  bluegrass  pastures.  The  Hampshire  is  not  es- 
pecially resistant  to  parasites,  yet  it  is  not  more 
afflicted  than  other  down  sheep,  unless  perhaps  the 
little  Southdown  may  be  somewhat  more  resistant. 
Breed  Hampshires,  if  eager  to  breed  one  of  the 
most  marvelously  fast-growing  and  beautiful  of 
breeds  in  its  finished  product  (the  fat  lambs),  but 
no  one  should  breed  them  who  is  not  willing  to  give 
them  their  due  of  feed  and  care. 

OXFORDS. 

The  Oxford  is  in  appearance  a  large  Shropshire, 
with  a  coarser  and  more  open  fleece,  a  larger  bone, 
usually  a  darker  face  and  coarser  ear.  It  is  the 
result  of  crossing  the  Cotswold  and  Hampshire 
types,  begun  about  the  year  1833.  The  Oxford  is  a 


54  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

noble  sheep,  having  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  Hampshires;  is  a  good  sire  with  which  to  cross 
breed  and  is  often  used  for  that  purpose.  There  is 
need  of  a  little  more  care  in  management  with  these 
sheep  to  avoid  parasitism  than  with  some  breeds, 
but  no  man  who  has  grown  Oxfords  and  kept  them 
healthy  but  has  found  them  profitable.  The  lambs  are 
large  and  growthy,  quick  to  respond  to  feed  and 
ready  for  market  at  an  early  age,  with  heavy  fleeces. 

The  Oxford  is  pre-eminently  the  sheep  for  cross- 
breeding. In  southern  Scotland  many  Oxford  rams 
are  in  use,  bred  to  ewes  of  Cheviot  or  Border 
Leicester  type,  and  the  cross-bred  lambs  sold.  The 
lambs  from  this  cross  are  remarkably  large,  strong, 
heavy  and  immense  shearers.  In  America  the  Ox- 
ford is  used  for  cross-breeding  on  the  ranges  with 
marked  success,  and  also  to  some  extent  on  eastern 
farms  on  Merino  ewes  or  grades. 

The  novice  in  sheep  breeding  may  here  become  a 
little  impatient  and  exclaim,  "What!  are  all  the 
down  breeds  then  good  for  cross-breeding?  Is  there 
no  distinction?  Is  not  the  author  too  impartial?" 

Let  us  briefly  assort  things.  The  Southdown  is 
best  for  early-maturity  and  early-fattening;  the 
Shropshire  for  everyday  purpose;  the  Hampshire 
where  extraordinary  goodness  with  weight  is  de- 
sired, and  where  exceedingly  good  feed  can  be  al- 
lowed ;  the  Oxford  where  quite  heavy  good-shearing 
lambs  are  desired.  Each  breed  has  its  field  and  each 
its  distinctive  value  separate  from  any  other.  The 
Suffolk  makes  more  flesh  from  grass  alone  than  the 


MUTTON  BREEDS 


55 


other  downs  and  is  a  hearty  feeder  too ;  so  one  pays 
one 's  money  and  takes  one 's  choice ! 


SUFFOLKS. 


To  the  northeast  of  London  lies  the  county  of 
Suffolk.    It  is  a  region  of  rich  grasslands  and  good 


•I 


SUFFOLK     RAM. 


cattle,  with  several  native  breeds  of  animals,  the 
most  noted  in  America  being  Eed  Polled  cattle,  Suf- 
folk horses  and  Suffolk  sheep.  The  Suffolk  sheep 
are  downs,  very  black  of  head  and  legs,  a  little  more 
leggy  than  Hampshires,  but  not  so  woolly  as  Shrop- 


56  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

shires  with  heads  both  black  and  bold.  Suffolks 
have  smaller  heads  than  Hampshires,  with  thinner 
ears.  They  differ  in  other  particulars,  one  being*  habit 
of  keep.  While  Hampshires  are  nearly  always  with- 
in the  hurdles,  Suffolks  are  nearly  always  on  grass. 
They  have  peculiar  ability  to  make  much  growth  on 
grass  alone,  and  to  make  with  a  little  added  grain 
splendid  gains.  Suffolk  lambs  have  more  than  once 
won  in  the  carcass  contests  at  the  London  Smithfield 
show.  The  breed  is  not  so  common  in  America  as 
its  merits  warrant.  Perhaps  the  bare  legs,  head  and 
light-wooled  bellies  of  the  ewes  have  been  displeas- 
ing to  American  flockmasters.  For  cross-breeding 
on  grade  Merino  ewes  there  is  hardly  a  better  breed, 
and  for  this  use  the  amount  of  wool  on  the  ram  cuts 
little  figure,  if  the  lambs  are  all  sold,  as  they 
should  be. 

THE  LONG- WOOLS. 

LEICESTEKS. 

The  Leicester  is  an  old  breed  little  known  in  the 
United  States  at  the  present  time  but  much  kept  in 
Canada.  It  is  notable  as  being  the  first  recorded 
sheep  to  feel  the  improvement  of  a  genius  in  breed- 
ing, Eobert  Bakewell  having  undertaken  the  im- 
provement of  the  breed  in  about  1755.  Bakewell 
conceived  the  idea  of  improving  this  old,  coarse- 
boned,  long-wooled  breed.  Just  how  he  did  it  we 
would  like  to  know  and  never  will,  but  it  was  en- 
tirely by  selection,  so  we  are  told,  and  he  evidently 
had  the  master  eye  for  seeing  virtues  in  animals 


MUTTON  BREEDS  57 

and  knowing  which  would  be  transmitted.  He  made 
such  fame  as  a  breeder  of  sheep  that  before  his 
death  his  rams  were  let  for  the  season  for  as  high 
as  $2,000  each. 

The  Leicester  is  found  in  Canada  and  on  some 
of  our  western  ranches.  It  is  a  large  sheep,  with 
white  points  and  a  long,  rather  coarse  wool.  It  is 
finely  formed,  with  an  especially  wide  spread  of 
rib,  and  has  an  extraordinary  facility  for  taking  on 
fat.  In  truth,  it  is  a  defect  in  the  Leicester,  accord- 
ing to  modern  idea,  that  it  loads  up  too  much  with 
internal  fat.  Its  best  place  in  our  economy  is  in 
cross-breeding.  Leicester  rams  on  Merino  ewes  pro- 
duce superb  feeders  with  a  very  good  class  of  wool. 

COTSWOLDS. 

One  of  the  most  common  breeds  in  parts  of  Amer- 
ica thirty  years  ago  was  the  Cotswold.  Common 
they  still  are  in  parts  of  the  country.  They  abound 
in  Canada  and  in  some  parts  of  the  West,  notably  in 
Utah  and  Oregon.  The  Cotswold  resembles  the 
Leicester  somewhat,  being  a  large  sheep  with  white 
face  and  legs  and  long  wool.  The  face  may  be  gray- 
ish or  even  light  brown,  and  there  is  a  tuft  of  wool 
on  the  forehead.  The  wool  is  coarse  but  adapted  to 
certain  uses.  Cotswolds  make  gain  profitably  but 
are  not  adapted  to  the  production  of  very  young  fat 
lambs.  The  best  use  of  the  breed  is  in  cross-breed- 
ing on  ewes  of  Merino  foundation,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose it  has  been  extensively  used  in  Montana  and 
other  western  states.  Cotswolds  do  not  thrive  when 


58  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

kept  in  large  flocks  in  the  eastern  states,  though 
they  are  healthy  in  Canada,  Oregon  and  other  cooler 
regions.  There  is  hardly  any  more  grand  and 
stately  sheep  than  the  well-bred  and  well-fitted  Cots- 
wold  as  it  appears  at  our  great  shows. 

LINCOLNS. 

Quite  like  the  Cotswold  is  the  Lincoln.  To  the 
careful  observer,  however,  there  is  a  considerable 
difference  in  the  type.  The  Lincoln  is  the  heaviest 
breed,  probably,  in  the  world,  and  in  England  Lin- 
coins  have  been  known  to  dress  90  pounds  per  quar- 
ter. The  wool  is  extraordinarily  long,  samples  be- 
ing shown  of  21  inches  growth,  and  rams  sometimes 
shear  the  extraordinary  amount  of  30  pounds.  The 
cross-bred  Lincoln-Merino  wool  is  of  high  value. 

The  new  Lincoln  sheep  is  the  product  of  Leicester 
crosses  upon  the  old  Lincoln.  He  is  truly  a  magnifi- 
cent creation  of  the  long-wooled  character,  requiring 
rich  pastures  and  plenty  of  space.  As  a  mutton 
sheep  he  is  inferior  to  the  down  breeds  as  far  as 
quality  is  concerned,  but  for  crossing  purposes  no 
class  of  sheep  is  in  greater  demand,  and  the  highest 
prices  in  recent  years  have  been  paid  by  Argen- 
tine buyers  for  Lincoln  rams.  In  truth,  the  great 
mutton  exporting  business  of  Argentina  is  based 
largely  upon  the  use  of  Lincoln  blood  on  Merino 
foundation,  and  it  is  not  generally  known  that,  their 
sheep  are  far  superior  to  our  own  in  quality  and 
are  therefore  much  more  acceptable  in  the  British 
markets. 


MUTTON  BREEDS 


59 


60  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

There  is  little  doubt  that  when  we  have  learned 
our  trade  better  we  will  in  turn  use  thousands  of 
rams  of  both  the  Lincoln  and  Cotswold  breeds  upon 
our  range-bred  ewes  to  produce  mutton  for  our  own 
and  the  foreign  markets. 

DORSET  HORNS. 

Properly,  the  Dorset  belongs  with  the  downs,  and 
indeed  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Dorset  Horns 
were  much  like  the  Wiltshire  ancestors  of  the  Hamp- 
shire Down  sheep.  There  is  now  little  resemblance 
between  the  Dorset  and  the  Hampshire  breeds, 
though  singularly  enough  each  has  taken  up  the 
same  field  of  endeavor,  the  production  of  early 
lambs. ,  The  Hampshire  lambs  usually  come  at  a 
later  time  than  the  Dorsets  and  do  not  go  to  market 
quite  so  young,  but  each  has  the  habit  of  fattening 
at  an  early  age,  and  the  Dorset  ewe  has  also  the  way 
of  dropping  her  lambs  at  an  earlier  season  than  any 
other  ewe..  Then  she  is  the  greatest  milker  of  any 
of  the  sheep  tribe,  and  because  of  this  large  supply 
of  milk,  and  because  of  their  vigorous  digestion  and 
ability  to  use  grain  at  an  early  age  the  Dorset  lambs 
soon  attain  to  good  weights  and  are  usually  sold  fat 
from  their  mothers'  sides.  In  truth,  it  is  not  good 
practice  to  allow  Dorset  lambs  to  attain  to  an  age 
of  above  six  to  eight  months,  and  most  profit  comes 
from  selling  them  at  two  to  four  months. 

The  Dorset,  like  the  Southdown,  is  of  unmixed 
ancestry,  and  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  breeds  in 
existence,  though  doubtless  much  changed  by  selec- 


MUTTON  BREEDS 


61 


62  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

tion  of  modern  and  progressive  breeders.  Before 
cows  were  used  in  the  dairy  in  Dorsetshire  sheep 
were  kept  for  their  milk  which,  no  doubt,  accounts 
in  part  for  the  wonderful  milking  powers  of  the 
Dorset  ewe.  In  truth,  many  of  these  ewes  are  such 
large  milkers  that  it  is  necessary  to  relieve  them  by 
hand  stripping  for  a  few  days  after  the  lambs  are 
born  until  they  become  able  to  take  all  the  milk. 

Dorset  Horns  are  so  named  because  both  sexes 
have  horns.  The  rams'  horns  are  large  and  heavy 
and  curved  rather  closely  in  front  of  the  head;  the 
ewes  have  light  horns  that  should  curve  toward  the 
front.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  Dorset  ewes  are  as 
pugnacious  as  their  armament  would  indicate,  often 
attacking  stray  dogs  and  lacking  almost  altogether 
that  timidity  that  characterizes  other  sheep.  A 
sheep-killing  dog  will  sometimes  kill  Dorset  ewes, 
but  it  is  not  probable  that  any  dog  would  begin  a 
career  of  sheep-killing  in  a  Dorset  flock.  These  facts 
win  considerable  favor  for  the  breed  in  these  days 
of  a  surplusage  of  useless  curs  and  many  states  with 
unsatisfactory  dog  laws. 

The  Dorsets  have  a  form  not  unlike  the  South- 
down, though  generally  more  upstanding,  and  a  sim- 
ilar fleece  of  close,  strong  wool,  with  an  elastic  fiber 
which  is  very  white.  They  shear  better  than  some 
mutton  breeds  and  the  wool  is  of  the  first  quality. 
They  are  very  docile  and  thrive  in  hurdles  or  on 
grass  where  proper  care  is  taken  to  keep  them  from 
parasites.  They  have  been  introduced  into  several 
states  of  our  country  and  have  thriven  wherever 


MUTTON  BREEDS  63 

men  have  understood  their  requirements,  and  have 
failed  wherever  in  the  hands  of  careless  or  ignorant 
shepherds.  It  is  notable  that  there  are  now  pro- 
duced in  America  under  the  conditions  of  the  east- 
ern states  as  good  Dorsets  as  there  are  in  the  world, 
whereas  most  of  the  other  mutton  breeds  rely  upon 
importations  to  maintain  their  quality.  Dorsets  find 


SOME    OHIO    DORSETS. 

their  best  use  in  America  in  the  hill  regions  of  the 
South,  where  early  lambs  are  grown.  They  are  fa- 
vorites in  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  and  so  far  as 
tried  in  Kentucky,  and  in  the  northern  states  they 
are  largely  used  in  the  "hothouse"  lamb  business. 
Dorsets  are  excellent  for  cross-breeding,  the  lambs 
growing  well  and  fattening  readily,  and  cross-bred 
ewes  from  Merino  mothers  and  Dorset  sires  form 


64  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

the  best  foundation  for  a  flock  of  producing  winter 
lambs. 

THE  MOUNTAIN  BREEDS. 

CHEVIOTS. 

The  Cheviot  is  classed  as  a  mountain  breed,  of 
which  there  are  a  number  in  England  and  Scotland, 
natives  of  the  hill  regions.  The  Cheviot  is  from  the 
Cheviot  hills  in  southern  Scotland  and  northern 
England.  It  is  a  remarkably  hardy,  vigorous  sheep, 
standing  erect  and  alert,  on  strong  legs,  carrying 
excellent  mutton,  and  a  fine  fleece  of  good  wool — 
rather  fine  for  a  mountain  breed.  There  is  scarcely 
anywhere  a  prettier  sheep  than  the  Cheviot.  It  has 
such  an  air  of  interest  and  intelligence  and  seems  so 
wideawake.  The  Cheviots  have  displaced  the  hardier 
Black-faced  breed  in  all  the  lower  and  richer  parts 
of  Scotland,  though  in  the  colder  and  more  heathery 
portions  this  ancient  breed  still  holds  its  own. 

The  Cheviot  has  a  place  in  our  land.  It  is  well 
adapted  to  grass  farms,  to  hill  regions  and  wher- 
ever sheep  are  required  to  make  good  mutton  large- 
ly from  pasture. 

Naturally  the  higher  and  cooler  regions  are  best 
adapted  to  this  sheep.  The  breed  is  quite  well  rep- 
resented in  America  and  has  thriven  in  many  parts 
of  the  country.  It  is  in  its  favor  that  it  is  not  too 
large,  seeing  that  fat  lambs,  not  too  heavy,  are  now 
most  in  demand. 

It  is  a  most  curious  indication  of  the  long  line  of 
unmixed  ancestry  of  the  Cheviot  sheep  that  it  is  one 


THE   MOUNTAIN   BREEDS 


65 


66  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

of  the  most  prepotent  breeds.  Crossed  with  almost 
any  breed,  the  Cheviot  characters  stand  out  con- 
spicuously; quite  often  sheep  three-fourths  Cheviot 
can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  a  pure-bred  speci- 
men. Cheviots,  like  all  mountain  breeds,  are  very 
alert  and  inclined  to  be  a  bit  wild  if  not  often  han- 
dled. They  should  thrive  admirably  in  the  moun- 
tain pastures  of  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York.  Bear  in  mind  that  the  peculiar  province 
of  the  Cheviot  is  to  .make  fat  mutton  from  good 
grass  alone,  though  they  respond  well  to  feeding. 

BLACK-FACES. 

The  writer  feels  that  it  would  cause  disappoint- 
ment among  his  readers  if  he  did  not  make  some 
mention  of  this  wonderful  little  Scotch  Black-faced 
highland  sheep.  In  their  own  land  nothing  can  take 
their  place.  They  have  the  instincts  of  true  wild 
animals.  They  love  the  high  peaks  and  heathery 
slopes,  and,  scenting  storms,  are  led  by  that  same 
instinct  to  seek  the  shelter  of  the  glens.  These 
sheep  belong  with  the  lands.  They  pass  with  the 
farm  from  one  tenant  to  the  other,  when  farms 
change  hands.  Their  love  of  home  is  so  great  that 
when  removed  miles  away  they  will  often  return 
straight  across  country  to  their  old  haunts,  swim- 
ming rivers  if  need  be  to  accomplish  their  desire. 

The  Black-faced  sheep  are  small,  moderately  well 
formed,  with  coarse,  long  wool.  They  make  good 
mutton,  which  commands  in  British  markets  a  good 
price,  being  thought  to  have  a  gamey  character.  They 


THE   MOUNTAIN    BREEDS  Of 

are  a  comparatively  new  breed  in  Scotland,  if  we 
accept  tradition,  having  existed  there  but  about  140 
years.  From  whence  they  came  is  a  mystery.  There 
are  no  sheep  elsewhere  in  the  world  like  them,  the 
Lonks  and  Herdwicks  of  northern  England  having 
most  resemblance.  They  seem  to  be  a  spontaneous 
product,  creation  of  environment,  to  graze  those 
heathery  hills. 

Of  course  they  had  to  start  from  somewhere,  and 
the  legend  that  they  swam  ashore  from  some  sink- 
ing ship  of  the  Spanish  Armada  is  harmless  and  as 
good  as  any.  The  management  of  these  hardy 
Black-faced  sheep  is  simple ;  every  day  the  shepherd 
seeks  to  see  each  ewe  of  the  flock,  climbing  high  over 
heather-clad  hills  with  his  dog  at  his  side  to  accom- 
plish this.  It  is  his  part  to  be  sure  that  none  of  the 
ewes  have  accidentally  gotten  upon  their  backs.  They 
are  shorn  in  June  or  July,  being  brought  down  to  the 
farmstead  for  that  purpose.  It  takes  a  good  dog 
and  an  agile  shepherd  to  round  them  up  and  bring 
them  down,  and  it  is  customary  to  tie  their  feet 
when  they  are  shorn,  since  they  struggle  like  wild 
things. 

In  winter  they  are  brought  down  to  the  fields  and 
given  a  bite  of  hay  and  sometimes  turnips.  It  is 
found,  however,  that  too  many  turnips  encourage 
the  growth  of  horn  in  the  unborn  lamb  that  some- 
times destroys  both  the  unfortunate  lamb  and  its 
mother. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  this  most  beautiful  and  pic- 
turesque sheep  is  one  that  presents  unusual  diffi- 


68  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

culties  to  the  would-be  breeder  in  America.  He 
must  beware  of  overfeeding  in  winter;  he  will  find 
them  hard  to  drive  and  pen ;  he  will  find  them  some- 
what harder  than  other  sheep  to  restrain  within 
boundaries.  And  still  there  are  situations,  like  the 
mountains  in  northern  Ontario,  in  the  higher  regions 
of  California,  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  along 
the  coast  islands  of  Alaska  where  undoubtedly  the 
natural  character  of  the  Black-faced  sheep  would 
make  it  of  great  value. 

John  Eoss  of  Mickel  Tarrell,  Eosshire,  Scot- 
land, who  fed  many  Black-faced  sheep  in  the  win- 
ter, told  me  that  wild  as  they  were  in  pasture  when 
brought  down  and  put  in  barns  in  winter  they  were 
the  most  sensible  of  all  sheep.  They  fed  well.  So 
far  as  I  have  seen  in  America,  Black-faced  sheep 
have  not  when  tried  been  given  the  right  habitat. 
They  need  the  coolest  of  mountain  pastures,  such 
as  may  be  found  in  New  England  or  northern  New 
York.  They  do  not  thrive  when  brought  to  the  hot 
cornbelt. 

The  writer  has  devoted  this  space  to  the  breed  be- 
cause of  its  connection  with  legend,  song  and  story, 
which  have  given  it  a  place  in  almost  every  man's 
heart,  and  because  he  hopes  to  count  loyal  Scots 
among  his  readers.  He  will  never  forget  his  days 
spent  among  the  Lammermoor  hills  of  southern 
Scotland,  where  the  Border  Leicesters  occupied  the 
lower  slopes  and  the  Black-faced  climbed  the  heath- 
ery heights  and  their  lambs  played  about  the  feet 
of  the  Twinlaw  Cairns.  It  was  a  land  of  peace  and 


THE    MOUNTAIN   BREEDS  69 

quiet,  of  faithfulness  and  almost  religious  devotion 
to  duty.  The  old  steward  of  the  farm  had  lived 
there  in  that  capacity  for  50  years.  His  son  and 
grandson  worked  on  the  farm.  High  upon  the  slope 
just  below  the  plantation  of  fir  wood,  stood  a  low 
stone  cottage  beaten  with  rain  and  wind,  where 
lived  the  faithful  old  shepherd  and  his  son,  and  just 
above  this  cottage  began  a  great  mountain  pasture, 
enclosed  by  stone  walls,  where  there  were  bits  of 
moors  from  which  peat  was  dug,  and  great  slopes  of 
heather,  which  is  a  small,  fine  and  dense-growing 
bush  on  which  sheep  can  subsist.  Would  that  we 
could  implant  upon  our  own  soil  some  such  spirit 
as  pervaded  this  place,  the  quiet  and  peace,  the  sim- 
ple living  and  high,  manly  thinking,  the  honesty  and 
devotion  to  duty ! 

THE  TUNIS  AND  PERSIAN  SHEEP. 

In  Asia  and  Africa  began  the  first  civilization, 
and  there  perhaps  began  the  first  domestication  of 
the  sheep.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  we  do  not  now 
know  whence  came  the  ancestors  of  our  various 
breeds  of  sheep,  nor  do  we  know  certainly  whether 
they  all  have  a  common  ancestry,  though  we  may 
infer  that  it  is  so  from  the  fact  of  their  readily  in- 
terbreeding with  each  other.  All  of  the  wild  breeds 
of  sheep  at  present  have  short  tails,  whereas  most 
domesticated  sheep  have  long  tails.  It  is  probable 
that  the  wild  race  from  which  sprung  our  flocks  of 
today  is  extinct. 

However,    it    is    interesting    to    note    what    ad- 


70  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

vance  has  been  made  by  the  Asiatic  and  African 
breeders  of  sheep  and  goats.  The  Nubian  goat  is 
probably  the  most  developed  in  milking  power  and 
fecundity  of  all  breeds  of  goats,  and  the  Persian  and 
African  sheep  have  also  strong  development  in  cer- 
tain ways  fitting  them  to  the  climates  and  environ- 
ments in  which  they  were  produced  and  to  the  needs 
of  their  owners. 

The  Persian  and  Tunis  sheep  have  evidently  com- 
mon origins  and  belong  to  the  same  race.  In  truth, 
it  would  seem  to  the  writer  that  the  Tunis  breed 
which  has  existed  in  America  since  about  1799  and 
which  now  may  need  some  infusion  of  fresh  blood 
might  with  advantage  receive  an  infusion  of  Persian 
blood. 

The  Tunis  came  to  America  early  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  was  bred  near  Philadelphia,  and  after- 
wards in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  where  they 
proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  environment.  The 
civil  war  almost  destroyed  them.  A  few  survived 
and  were  shown  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  in 
Chicago.  Soon  thereafter  some  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirers began  breeding  these  sheep  in  Indiana.  It 
is  possible  that  in  their  time  of  adversity  the  blood 
of  the  Tunis  was  not  kept  quite  unmixed,  since  there 
is  more  variety  in  type  among  them  than  is  usual 
among  pure  breeds. 

The  distinguishing  character  of  the  Tunis  breed 
is  the  head,  which  should  be  hornless,  covered  with 
tawny  yellowish  brown  hair,  the  nose  may  incline 
to  roman  character,  the  ear  should  droop  and  be 


THE   MOUNTAIN   BREEDS 


71 


72  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

rather  heavy.  The  form  is  much  like  other  mutton 
sheep  except  that  the  legs  are  usually  long  and  the 
neck  the  same.  The  fleece  is  soft,  fine,  fairly  abun- 
dant, and  varies  much  in  color;  it  may  be  white,  or 
brown,  or  reddish,  or  the  colors  may  be  intermixed. 
In  the  Persian  the  same  characteristics  are  noted, 
with  a  likelihood  of  black  predominating. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Tunis  is  the 
fat  tail.  This  seems  to  have  been  originally  planned 
as  a  store-house  to  tide  the  animal  over  periods  of 
drought  and  bad  pasturage.  When  tails  are  not 
docked  they  are  moderately  long  and  the  fleshy  part 
hangs  down  about  six  or  eight  inches.  This  is  so 
inconvenient  at  the  breeding  season  that  ewes 
usually  have  their  tails  docked,  besides  there  is  in 
the  United  States  no  popular  clamor  for  fat  tails, 
which  are  in  African  and  Asiatic  regions  considered 
very  delicious  and  are  used  in  place  of  butter. 

When  the  tails  are  docked  there  is  yet  an  accu- 
mulation of  fat  across  the  top  of  the  rump. 

Tunis  sheep  fatten  very  readily  and  their  lambs 
are  especially  quick  to  become  plump  and  ready  for 
the  fancy  hothouse  lamb  trade.  It  is  for  this  pur- 
pose that  they  are  mostly  used,  though  the  Tunis 
rams  crossed  upon  almost  any  breed  of  ewes  get 
good  lambs. 

The  Persian  sheep  were  introduced  into  the 
United  States  in  1891  and  bred  in  California,  Ne- 
vada and  other  western  states.  They  are  very 
large,  very  active,  good  feeders  on  the  range,  and 
when  crossed  on  Merinos  the  lambs  prove  to  be  very 


THE   MOUNTAIN   BREEDS 


73 


74  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

easily  fattened.  Of  a  herd  of  half-blood  Persian- 
Merino  ewes  a  California  owner  says:  "They  are 
omnivorous  feeders  and  great  rustlers  for  food.  If 
there  is  anything  between  heaven  and  earth  to  eat 
they  will  get  it."  The  writer  has  observed  a  tend- 
ency among  some  Persians  to  foot  disease  when  kept 
on  wet  soils.  They  are  true  sheep  of  the  desert, 
and  there  they  would  seem  to  have  a  useful  place. 

Among  the  breeds  described  the  would-be  sheep 
owner  can  choose  one  and  he  should  stick  to  that 
one.  Cross-breeding  is  permissible  for  the  market, 
but  let  no  one  undertake  at  this  day  to  create  a  new 
breed  of  sheep  by  mingling  the  bloods  of  breeds 
already  having  received  the  care  and  thought  of  gen- 
erations of  skillful  breeders.  One  man's  lifetime  is 
too  short  to  establish  a  breed,  and  there  seems  small 
need  of  another. 

It  may  be  well  again  to  remind  readers  who  may 
happen  to  be  living  in  the  cornbelt  or  south  of  it, 
that  the  easiest  and  surest  success  in  breeding  and 
maintaining  a  mutton  flock  is  to  select  ewes  of  the 
most  "muttony"  of  the  Merinos  (Delaines,  Black- 
tops  or  Eambouillets),  choosing  rams  of  whatever 
breed  of  English  sheep  best  suits  his  purpose  and 
situation,  and  cross-breeding  and  selling  the  lambs. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  we  have  too  long  neglected 
what  may  rightly  be  termed  American  breeds — the 
Blacktops,  Delaines  and  in  a  slighter  sense  the  Ram- 
bouillets,  for  in  ewes  of  such  type  is  our  best  chance 
for  quite  easy  success  in  sheep  breeding.  Naturally 
there  must  be  breeders  of  all  of  the  breeds  described, 


THE    MOUNTAIN    BREEDS  75 

or  we  should  have  no  source  of  rams.  There  are  too 
situations  where  ewes  of  purely  English  breeding 
are  successful — in  the  cool  regions  along  our  north- 
ern border  or  on  mountains  or  anywhere  in  small 
flocks  where  shifted  often  from  place  to  place;  but 
for  the  everyday  farmer  Merino  ewes  are  safer  and 
surer  to  bring  profit. 


CHAPTER   III. 
CROSS-BREEDING. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  excellence  of  many  of 
the  pure  breeds  of  sheep  it  will  be  a  long  time  before 
we  will  be  free  from  the  practice  of  cross-breeding. 
There  is  a  necessity  for  this  in  sheep  breeding  much 
more  urgent  than  in  cattle  breeding,  or,  in  fact,  with 
any  other  farm  animals.  Very  few  pure-bred  sheep 
reach  our  markets.  Nor  will  they  come  in  large 
numbers  for  many  years.  The  reason  for  this  is  to 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  so  large  a  per  cent  of  our 
sheep  are  grown  upon  the  western  ranges.  There 
ewe  flocks  seem  most  profitable  when  they  have  a 
Merino  foundation.  Merinos  from  time  immemorial 
have  been  range  sheep,  the  only  break  in  their  habit 
being  the  few  decades  that  they  were  kept  upon  east- 
ern farms.  Merinos  are  hardy,  are  used  to  drouths 
and  short  feed,  have  the  instinct  of  herding,  are 
easily  managed.  Moreover  they  retain  their  wool 
well  up  to  considerable  age.  Wool  is  a  far  greater 
factor  in  western  sheep  husbandry  than  it  is  in  the 
country  to  the  east.  Flocks  must  be  good  shearers, 
must  be  hardy,  must  herd  well. 

But  the  Merino  when  kept  pure  is  an  inferior 
mutton  sheep.  Moreover  it  is  an  inferior  breeding 
sheep.  An  infusion  of  mutton  blood  makes  the  ewe 

(76) 


CROSS-BREEDING  77 

a  better  mother,  lier  lambs  stronger,  she  suckles 
them  better.  She  feeds  better,  too,  and  is  a  "better 
rustler."  Then  her  progeny  is  in  large  part  des- 
tined to  reach  the  great  markets  when  about  six 
months  of  age.  Therefore  the  better  grown  and 
heavier  it  is  the  more  money  it  will  bring.  Thus 
there  is  often  sought  a  class  of  rams  that  will  make 
the  best  lambs — regardless  of  their  fitness  for  long- 
continued  life  upon  the  range  they  will  not  natu- 
rally remain  there  more  than  one  summer.  Thus 
the  complexity  of  cross-breeding  is  increased,  for 
from  the  mother  having  in  her  own  body  an  infusion 
of  mutton  blood  there  is  secured  a  lamb  having  a 
sire  of  pure  mutton  breeding.  What  sort  of  cross 
makes  the  best  ewe,  what  sort  of  cross  upon  her 
makes  the  best  market  lamb?  To  this  question 
there  would  naturally  be  as  many  answers  as  there 
are  supporters  of  breeds  of  sheep.  There  is  hardly 
any  commingling  of  bloods  that  has  not  use  for  some 
special  environment.  We  may  clear  the  matter  up 
somewhat  by  discussing  a  few  crosses  and  their 
results. 

At  the  outset  let  it  be  said  that  the  influence  of 
the  sire  and  dam  are  theoretically  equal.  Some  hid- 
den power  of  the  one  or  the  other  may  seem  to  cause 
the  offspring  to  resemble  more  nearly  the  one  parent 
than  the  other,  but  no  man  can  safely  predict  whether 
this  influence  will  reside  in  the  sire  or  the  dam. 
Naturally,  as  she  nourishes  the  lamb,  the  ewe  has 
greater  chance  to  influence  her  progeny  than  the  sire. 
Thus  if  a  ewe  of  a  small  race  is  mated  with  a  ram 


78  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

of  a  large  race  the  lamb  must  be  nourished,  both 
before  and  after  birth,  by  the  smaller  ewe.  It  will 
grow  to  be  of  greater  size  than  its  mother,  but  will 
not  equal  the  size  of  its  sire.  Nor  will  it  be  identi- 
cally the  same  as  though  the  cross  was  reversed. 
That  is,  supposing  we  are  considering  the  Merino 
of  one  of  the  lesser  strains,  and  the  Hampshire,  the 
natural  way  of  crossing  is  to  use  the  Hampshire  ram 
on  the  Merino  ewe.  The  result  is  a  lamb  that  grows 
to  be  larger  than  its  mother,  and  smaller  than  its 
sire. 

Reversing  the  process,  we  choose  a  typical  Merino 
ram  and  mate  him  to  a  Hampshire  ewe  and  get  a 
lamb  that  may  never  equal  the  ewe  in  stature,  but 
excels  considerably  its  sire,  and  also  excels  the  lamb 
of  identically  the  same  blood  from  the  Merino 
mother.  The  better  nourishment  both  before  and 
after  birth  causes  this  result.  It  is  seen  then  that 
the  better  the  ewe  the  better  her  lamb.  Neverthe- 
less, it  may  happen  that  a  class  of  moderately  small 
ewes  may  yield  most  profit  since  they  consume  for- 
age about  in  proportion  to  their  size,  thus  a  flock  of 
1,000  medium-sized  ewes  bred  to  fine,  strong  mutton- 
bred  rams  would  very  likely  yield  a  better  weight 
of  lambs  than  a  flock  of  800  larger  ewes  and  consume 
practically  the  same  amount  of  feed. 

In  other  words,  the  ram  is  just  half  of  the  flock, 
and  by  far  the  easier  half  to  provide  the  forage  for. 
Thus  the  ram  cannot  well  be  too  good. 

To  freshen  the  blood  of  the  pure  Merino  on  the 
range  a  number  of  infusions  have  been  tried.  The 


CROSS-BREEDING  79 

Cotswold  blood  does  well ;  a  flock  having  one-quarter 
or  even  one-eighth  of  Cotswold  blood  is  increased  in 
size  and  stamina  remarkably.  To  get  a  flock  of  one- 
quarter  Cotswold  blood  one  must  first  get  one-half 
blood  Cotswold-Merino  rams  to  use  on  his  pure-bred 
Merinos.  For  some  exceedingly  rich  ranges  the  one- 
half  blood  Cotswold-Merino  ewes  are  used  and  with 
good  success.  These  ewes  are  exceedingly  good  for- 
agers and  raise  hardy  fast-growing  lambs. 

DISHLEY    MERINOS. 

On  page  219  is  shown  a  flock  of  newly-shorn 
Dishley  Merinos,  the  breeding  of  E.  Delacour  of 
Gouzangrez,  France.  I  mention  this  breed  not  be- 
cause it  is  now  found  in  the  United  States  but  be- 
cause it  has  played  some  part  in  the  history  of 
sheep  breeding,  and  because  assuredly  I  have  never 
seen  a  finer  flock  of  sheep  than  M.  Delacour 's. 
There  are  some  2,000  of  them  together,  white,  clean 
and  plump,  their  skins  pink  and  eyes  bright,  with 
never  a  trace  of  stomach  worms  about  them.  Dish- 
ley  Merinos  are  a  hybrid  sheep,  product  of  mingling 
the  blood  of  the  Merino  and  the  Leicester.  The  very 
difficult  thing  of  getting  a  fusion  of  these  very 
diverse  bloods  has  been  accomplished,  although  one 
might  well  ask,  as  he  studies  M.  Delacour 's  sheep, 
whether  the  influence  of  the  Merino  ancestry  had  not 
been  pretty  well  lost,  the  present  form  of  the  sheep 
being  much  that  of  the  Leicester,  with,  however,  a 
finer,  softer  and  better  wool  and  a  smaller  body  than 
the  pure-bred  Leicester.  Once  this  breed  had  con- 


80  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

siderable  fame  in  England  and  America.  It  is  yet 
a  most  worthy  sheep. 

The  Lincoln  cross  does  admirably  on  some  types 
of  Merino  ewes  and  is  much  esteemed  in  some  re- 
gions of  the  West.  The  Oxford  cross  has  given 
good  results  also  as  a  permanent  infusion  in  the 
range  flock.  There  are  a  few  sheep  owners  who  use 
the  Hampshire  for  this  purpose,  though  the  general 
opinion  is  now  that  the  blood  of  the  downs  cuts 
short  the  yield  of  wool. 

The  Leicester  blood  makes  an  admirable  infusion 
into  the  range  flock.  It  is  said  that  not  more  than 
one-quarter  or  one-eighth  of  it  is  needed  to  give 
strength  and  hardiness.  The  Dorset  has  been  tried 
and  found  worthy ;  some  of  the  best  range  ewes  the 
writer  has  ever  seen  have  been  in  part  of  Dorset 
blood.  Dorset  blood  especially  helps  the  milking 
qualities  of  Merino  ewes  and  makes  them  able  to 
push  their  lambs  forward  astonishingly. 

Though  the  writer  knows  of  no  instance  of  its  use 
he  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  use  of  Cheviot  blood 
would  prove  a  very  desirable  addition  to  herds 
ranging  in  the  mountains  of  the  West.  Probably 
one-quarter  of  Cheviot  blood  would  be  enough. 
Cheviots  make  flesh  readily  from  grass  alone  and 
are  remarkably  hardy  and  are  very  great  rustlers 
for  feed. 

CROSS-BREEDIXG  FOB  THE  LAMB  MARKET. 

Considering  the  western  range  sheep  first,  various 
breeds  have  been  used  for  production  of  market 


CROSS-BREEDING 


81 


lambs.  At  one  time  the  Long-wools,  Cotswolds, 
Leicester  or  Lincoln  were  considered  best  for  this 
purpose.  Earns  of  either  of  these  breeds  will  beget 
fine,  strong  lambs  that  will  feed  well  and  grow  to 
large  size.  They  will  not  be  so  fat  at  weaning  time 
nor  come  into  market  so  early  as  lambs  from  one  of 


DORSET  EWES. 


the  down  breeds,  but  they  do  splendidly  in  the  feed- 
lot  and  attain  heavy  weights — in  truth,  often  too 
heavy  weights. 

The  Hampshire  gets  splendid  lambs,  well  marked 
with  brown  points,  easily  made  fat  and  selling  near 
the  top  of  the  market.  One  can  hardly  make  a  mis- 
take in  using  Hampshire  rams  if  he  wishes  to  make 
market  lambs.  Hampshire  grade  lambs  will  usually 


82  SHEEP   FARMING   IN    AMERICA 

be  fat  enough  for  the  butchers  when  they  come  from 
the  range,  and  if  they  are  fed  will  ripen  very  early. 
They  attain  to  large  weights. 

The  Oxford  ram  gets  a  lamb  a  little  larger,  prob- 
ably, than  the  Hampshire,  a  strong,  hardy  fellow, 
that  feeds  well.  He  weighs  heavy  and  makes  good, 
but  not  so  early  as  the  other  downs.  He  shears 
heavier. 

The  Shropshire  ram  gets  fine,  active,  growthy 
lambs  that  mature  sooner  than  the  Oxfords  and  sell 
first  rate.  They  will  often  be  fat  enough  for  the 
killers  when  they  leave  the  range. 

The  Southdown  gets  merry,  plump,  roly-poly 
lambs  that  are  fat  first  of  all  and  are  apt  to  bring 
most  money  per  pound  in  the  market.  They  will 
not  weigh  quite  so  much  as  the  Shropshire  grades, 
but  will  be  ripe  earlier.  The  grand  champion  load 
of  range  lambs  at  the  International  at  Chicago  in 
1906  was  a  load  of  Southdown  cross-breed  lambs. 
The  western  flockmaster  need  not  fear  to  use  South- 
down rams  if  he  means  to  sell  the  lambs.  They  will 
make  good  and  that  very  early. 

The  Dorset  gets  lambs  that  weigh  unusually  well 
and  the  ewe  lambs  should  always  be  saved  to  be  put 
in  the  flock,  since  Dorset  blood  in  the  ewe  flock  is  a 
gold  mine  to  the  flock  owner. 

At  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition  in 
1910  were  exhibited  the  first  carlots  of  grade  Dorset 
lambs  ever  shown  in  America.  One  lot  coming  from 
New  York,  out  of  grade  ewes,  was  of  great  beauty 
and  weighed  quite  8  pounds  per  head  heavier  than 


CROSS-BREEDING  83 

any  other  lambs  at  the  show.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
any  other  breed  can  produce  by  cross-breeding  a 
lamb  that  is  better  to  feed  or  will  attain  in  a  given 
time  to  greater  weight. 

Cross-breeding  on  the  ranges  is  not  without  its 
difficulties.  The  problem  is  to  maintain  the  original 
ewe  flock  in  its  integrity.  Cross-bred  lambs  that 
may  sell  for  the  top  of  the  market  at  the  river  mar- 
kets may  be  unfit  for  retention  on  the  range,  be- 
cause of  the  too  large  proportion  of  mutton  blood. 
The  best  plan  is  to  breed  a  portion  of  the  ewes  of 
highest  quality  from  the  standpoint  of  the  range 
man  to  rams  especially  suited  to  range  use,  and  thus 
to  maintain  the  flock  in  its  required  qualities,  letting 
all  of  the  cross-bred  lambs  go  to  market. 

CROSS-BREEDING   IN    EASTERN    PASTURES. 

There  is  not  the  same  reason  for  cross-breeding 
in  eastern  lands.  In  truth  too  much  of  that  is  done 
at  all  times  and  types  are  destroyed  by  useless  com- 
binings  of  bloods.  If  one  starts  out  with  a  Shrop- 
shire flock  he  should  endeavor  to  make  it  a  better 
Shropshire  flock  by  purchase  of  better  Shropshire 
rams  than  he  has  been  in  habit  of  using.  If  he  needs 
greater  vigor  and  constitution  he  can  get  it  probably 
quite  as  easily  by  choosing  an  unrelated  ram  breed, 
it  may  be,  at  a  distance  from  him,  having  first  rate 
vigor  and  constitution,  and  of  the  same  breed.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  Cotswold,  Oxford,  Southdown, 
and  other  breeds.  There  are  not  enough  of  the  pure 
breeds  now,  and  they  should  not  be  mixed  unless  for 


84  SHEEP   FARMING   IN    AMERICA 

some  special  purpose,  and  it  must  be  remembered 
that  as  the  cross-bred  progeny  should  go  to  market 
the  process  of  cross-breeding  is  a  suicidal  one. 

There  are  occasions,  however,  when  cross-breeding 
on  the  farm  is  desirable.  One  may  buy  western 
ewes  and  ship  them  home.  These  are  destined  for 
lamb-growing  exclusively  and  no  attempt  will  be 
made  to  maintain  the  flock.  These  ewes  then  may  be 
mated  with  a  ram  suitable  to  the  market  and  the 
time  of  year  aimed  at.  If  for  hothouse  lamb  trade 
a  Southdown,  Tunis,  Hampshire,  Shropshire  or  Dor- 
set should  be  used.  If  to  lamb  later  and  grow  the 
lambs  mainly  on  grass  the  Tunis  and  Dorset  may 
be_  eliminated  and  the  Cheviot  and  Oxford  added  to 
the  list  from  which  rams  may  be  drawn.  Or  if  the 
lambs  are  to  come  late  and  be  fed  the  next  winter 
one  of  the  long-wools  may  be  chosen.  Or,  if  the  flock 
happens  to  be  placed  in  one  of  those  rare  regions 
like  the  hills  of  Ohio  where  sheep  are  yet  grown 
largely  for  their  fleece,  the  Delaine  or  Kambouillet, 
or  Spanish  Merino  ram  may  be  used. 

There  are  regions,  however,  where  cross-breeding 
is  imperatively  demanded.  That  is  in  the  early  lamb 
breeding  regions  of  the  Virginias,  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky.  Here  are  found  types  of  native  mountain 
sheep  of  a  peculiar  character.  They  may  be  said  to 
be  true  "American"  sheep,  descendants  of  the  ear- 
lier importations.  The  unmixed  native  mountain 
sheep  is  leggy,  thin  in  neck,  light  in  fleece,  having 
somewhat  of  an  open  fleece  as  though  coming  from 
an  open-wooled  breed,  and  very  often  the  ewes  have 


CROSS-BREEDING  85 

horns.  It  may  be  supposed  that  the  first  colonists 
sailing  as  they  often  did  from  Bristol  and  Plymouth, 
in  the  south  of  England,  brought  with  them  the  na- 
tive sheep  of  those  regions  among  which  would  be 
the  Dorsets  and  various  types  of  long-wools.  These 
mountain  ewes  though  handsome  to  look  at  are  bet- 
ter than  they  at  first  appear.  They  are  active,  good 
feeders,  very  prolific,  and  good  mothers.  Their 
lambs  are  not  of  first  rate  quality  unmixed,  but 
when  sired  by  rams  of  good  mutton  type  they  grow 
finely  and  sell  well.  The  favorite  sire  for  this  busi- 
ness has  been  the  Southdown,  in  truth  no  breed  can 
get  a  better  lamb  or  one  ripening  earlier  than  this 
old  standby.  Shropshires  are  often  used,  also,  and 
get  a  heavier  lamb.  Hampshires  are  in  great  favor 
where  tried  and  Dorsets  have  their  strenuous  advo- 
cates, especially  in  Virginia,  where  they  have  been 
used  most. 

The  advantage  of  Dorset  blood  is  twofold:  first 
the  lambs  attain  very  good  weights,  usually  out- 
weighing the  progeny  of  down  rams,  and  the  ewe 
lambs  if  retained  on  the  farm  make  admirable 
mothers  for  successive  generations.  Lambs  in  these 
regions  are  usually  born  in  March  and  fattened 
mainly  on  grass,  going  to  market  in  June  and  July. 
The  source  of  supply  of  these  ewes  is  from  the  small 
farmers  in  the  mountains.  Could  these  men  be  in- 
duced to  improve  their  flocks  by  use  of  better  rams 
the  benefit  would  be  immediate  and  marked.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  an  infusion  of  fresh  blood  from 
any  of  the  down  or  Dorset  breeds  would  greatly 


86  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

benefit  these  mountain  flocks.  At  present  they  are 
suffering  from  the  result  of  long-continued  in- 
breeding. An  infusion  of  fresh  and  unrelated 
blood  would  marvelously  improve  them. 

Earlier  in  these  pages  I  have  in  this  1911  edition 
given  some  space  to  the  thought  that  the  "mut- 
tony" Merinos  are  splendidly  adapted  to  stocking 
eastern  farms.  With  Merinos,  Delaines,  Blacktops 
or  Eambouillets  the  greatest  profit  comes  from 
cross-breeding.  There  is  fear,  however,  that  in 
doing  this  at  present,  when  the  ewe  flocks  of  these 
breeds  are  in  all  too  insufficient  supply,  one  will  lose 
one's  breed  altogether,  since  the  cross-bred  lambs 
had  better  be  all  sent  to  market.  The  ideal  plan  to 
pursue  is  to  use  two  rams,  one  the  most  "muttony" 
of  Merinos  of  the  type  of  the  ewes,  breeding  him  to 
half  of  the  ewes  (the  better  ones),  the  other  ram  of 
mutton  breeding  and  all  of  his  lambs  going  to  mar- 
ket, while  the  pure-bred  Merino  ewe  lambs  will  be 
saved  to  add  to  the  flock.  If  one  cannot  follow  this 
course  and  is  uncertain  of  where  one  can  get  a  re- 
newed supply  of  ewes,  one  can  use  a  mutton  ram 
one  year,  marketing  the  lambs,  a  Merino  the  next 
year,  giving  chance  to  save  enough  ewe  lambs  to  keep 
the  flock  strong.  Opinion  is  much  divided  as  to  the 
wisdom  of  crossing  the  families  of  Merinos  among 
themselves.  A  dash  of  Eambouillet  blood  increases 
the  size  of  the  smaller  families  of  Merinos,  and 
gives  better  feeding  powers  and  mothering  faculties. 
On  Eambouillet  ewes  a  cross  of  Blacktop  is  said 
considerably  to  help  the  shearing  and  to  make  the 


CROSS-BREEDING  87 

lambs 'earlier-maturing.  In  general,  however,  it  will 
be  found  that  breeders  of  Merinos  will  be  sticklers 
for  pure  breeding,  not  one  admitting  that  the  cross 
of  any  other  Merino  family  improves  his  type. 

From  my  study  of  profits  in  general  sheep-farm- 
ing, I  am  convinced  that  Merino  ewes  can  hardly 
have  too  much  mutton  character;  it  is  not  the  ex- 
traordinary fleece  that  the  ewe  may  bear  that  makes 
her  profitable.  Bather  it  is  her  ability  to  resist 
parasites,  to  subsist  on  coarse  food,  to  raise  a  good 
lamb  and  withal  to  yield  a  fairly  satisfactory  fleece. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

RESTOCKING    A   FARM    WITH    SHEEP. 

Supposing  that  we  have  decided  to  embark  in  the 
sheep  industry,  and  have  decided  on  a  breed,  the 
next  consideration  is  how  to  set  about  filling  the 
void  of  sheep  upon  our  farm.  Farms  differ  in  size, 
conformation  and  soil;  conditions  vary  greatly,  so 
that  no  rule  can  be  laid  down  that  will  be  applicable 
to  all  places,  yet  there  are  a  few  facts  that  are  of 
general  application.  In  England  and  France  there 
are  farms  almost  entirely  devoted  to  sheep ;  they 
carry  little  other  stock,  and  grow  crops  mainly  to 
be  fed  to  the  flock,  with  only  grain  in  rotation. 

These  farms  are  very  profitable  when  well  man- 
aged, and  greatly  build  the  soil  and  the  fortunes  of 
the  owners.  We  cannot  yet  advocate  the  attempt  to 
establish  in  our  land  such  sheep  farms  as  these;  at 
least  the  growth  of  such  a  farm  should  be  very 
gradual,  and  any  attempt  to  at  once  establish  such 
a  one  would  result  disastrously  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten.  We  have  no  class  of  expert  shepherds  such  as 
would  be  needed  to  care  for  a  flock  on  such  a  farm, 
nor  would  the  importation  of  British  shepherds  help 
us,  for  we  have  problems  that  they  know  not  of,  and 

(88) 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  89 

our  range  of  feeds  is  quite  different  from  theirs. 
With  a  right  understanding  of  the  matters  and  a 
gradual  adaptation  of  our  farms  to  sheep  growing, 
and  a  habit  of  care  once  formed  we  can  devote  whole 
farms  to  sheep  as  well  as  our  British  cousins,  but 
that  is  a  work  that  must  come  with  time  and  ex- 
perience. 

At  present,  then,  the  farmer  should  start  with  a 
small  flock,  letting  it  increase  gradually,  and  trying 
to  grow  in  knowledge  and  experience  as  the  flock 
grows  in  size. 

Nor  would  it  be  wise  or  prudent  to  begin  with  a 
flock  of  pure-bred  ewes.  A  few  pure-breds  should 
be  purchased,  say  ten  or  twelve,  the  rest  of  the  flock 
may  well  be  of  grades.  The  ram  should  always  be 
pure-bred  and  of  as  good  quality  as  can  be  secured. 
He  is  half  the  flock,  and  if  he  is  mated  with  grades 
and  is  required  to  supply  all  their  deficiencies  he 
has  great  need  to  be  a  good  one. 

SELECTION    OF   THE   RAM. 

Choose  not  an  extra  large  ram,  but  one  of  medium 
size  for  the  breed  selected.  Size  does  not  always  go 
with  vigor  or  prepotency,  or  ability  to  transmit  good 
qualities.  It  is  rare  that  the  largest  ram  of  a  lot 
has  the  most  vigor  or  quality.  Choose  a  ram  that 
has  short  legs  (they  go  with  early  maturity),  with 
wide  breast,  avoiding  the  rams  where  "both  legs 
come  out  of  the  same  hole  in  the  body,"  choose  the 
one  with  well-sprung  rib  and  a  level,  straight  back, 
looking  of  course  for  a  good  leg  of  mutton,  which  is 


90  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

after  all  about  all  that  there  is  in  a  sheep,  from  the 
butcher's  standpoint.  Then  be  sure  that  there  is  a 
thick,  muscular  neck,  a  bright,  quick  eye,  a  brisk 
movement  denoting  vim  and  vigor.  Such  a  ram  will 
leave  his  impress  indelibly  upon  the  flock.  If  one 
cannot  personally  select  his  ram,  he  may  often  leave 
it  to  the  good  judgment  of  the  seller,  specifying 
what  is  wanted,  and  the  novice  will  generally  get 
better  service  from  the  honorable  vendor  than  were 
he  to  attempt  to  select  for  himself. 

Fleece  is  of  course  important,  and  minor  points, 
such  as  markings  and  absence  of  scurs  or  horns  on 
all  breeds  save  Merinos  and  Dorsets.  But  first  of 
all  in  importance  is  to  get  a  ram  boiling  over  with 
vim  and  vigor. 

A  ram  of  such  character  will  readily  care  for  40 
or  50  ewes  if  hand  coupling  is  practiced,  allowing 
but  one  service  to  each  ewe.  He  may  indeed  go  to 
more  than  that  when  in  his  prime,  aged  from  one 
year  to  four  or  five. 

KEEPING  A  TYPE. 

At  the  showring  one  often  hears  a  remark  from 
some  student  of  breeds,  "that  is  a  good  pen,  but  off 
on  type,"  or,  "that  is  a  good  sheep,  but  not  of  the 
right  type  for  the  breed. "  What,  then,  is  type? 

Type  is  style,  conformation,  character.  It  is  a 
something  distinct  and  definite,  though  hard  to  de- 
scribe, that  belongs  with  each  breed.  It  may  not 
always  be  of  much  value,  from  a  dollar-and-cents 
standpoint,  yet  a  flock  lacking  in  type  is  not  attract- 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


91 


ive  and  cannot  hope  to  do  much  in  the  showring. 
For  example,  a  Cheviot  true  to  type  has  an  erect 
ear,  an  alert  manner,  a  way  of  carrying  its  head.  A 
flock  of  Cheviots  that  lacked  this  erect  ear,  this 
sprightliness  of  look  and  carriage,  would  fail  very 
much  in  type  and  would  not  be  attractive.  Types 


A     RAMBOUILLET    RAM. 


change  as  ideals  change.  The  Shropshire  has  under- 
gone a  notable  evolution  within  20  years,  has  de- 
creased somewhat  in  scale,  has  gained  in  compact- 
ness, in  covering,  in  beauty.  The  shepherd  should 
study  type  so  as  to  know  what  the  correct  ideal  is 
for  his  own  especial  breed  and  then  choose  his  ram 
to  help  him  fix  that  type. 


92  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

This  does  not  mean  that  he  should  be  a  slave  to 
other  men's  caprices;  there  are  fashions  that  are 
foolish  and  that  sooner  or  later  will  work  the  un- 
doing of  their  followers.  One  is  wise  to  steer  clear 
of  them  as  far  as  he  is  able.  Or  a  man  may  have 
within  him  the  creative  instinct  that  will  enable  him 
to  evolve  a  new  and  better  ideal,  and  to  breed  a  new 
and  more  desirable  type.  There  is  need  in  America 
of  much  more  independence  than  exists  now  in  this 
matter.  The  last  thing  has  not  been  learned  in  sheep 
breeding,  nor  in  all  cases  the  most  profitable  type 
evolved.  In  England  there  is  a  constant  evolution 
going  on  and  breeds  do  not  remain  stationary  very 
long.  Their  work  is  done  in  various  ways,  usually 
by  selection  and  careful  matings,  sometimes  by  judi- 
cious and  skillful  introduction  of  new  blood.  This 
is  more  easily  accomplished  there  than  here  owing 
to  the  lack  of  prejudice  against  such  practice  and 
the  different  rules  of  their  flock  books.  The  safe 
plan  here  is  to  work  within  recognized  breeds. 

Here  is  an  illustration.  It  throws  much  light 
upon  the  creation  of  breeds  in  the  good  Old  World. 
The  writer  met  a  breeder  of,  let  us  say,  Dartmoor 
sheep.  (In  fact  it  was  another  breed.)  This  man 
was  exhibiting  at  the  Eoyal  show,  and  pressed  the 
writer  to  visit  his  pens  and  inspect  the  sheep.  There 
was  among  them  an  especially  good  ram  and  the 
following  conversation  took  place:  Writer,  "He  is 
a  splendid  animal.  I  should  think  he  would  get  first 
in  his  place." 

"Indeed,  I  hope  he  will,  and  championship  too, 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


93 


94  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

and  I  think  he  is  sure  of  both  if  the  judge  does  not 
think  him  too  good." 

"But  how  can  he  be  too  good;  he  is  pure  Dart- 
moor in  blood,  is  he  not?" 

"Well,"  cautiously,  "I'll  not  deny  that  there  may 
be  a  drop  of  other  blood  in  Mm,  just  a  drop,  and  not 
too  much."  The  writer  saw  the  point,  and  curiosity 
led  him  back  after  the  showing.  He  found  the 
owner  jubilant.  i '  Did  your  ram  win  first  ? '  ' 

"Indeed  lie  won  first,  and  championship  too." 

"And  what  did  the  judge  say?" 

"Indeed  the  judge  said  that  a  Dartmoor  could  not 
be  too  good." 

However,  the  writer  does  not  by  any  means  advise 
the  ordinary  breeder  to  attempt  to  help  his  breed 
by  an  admixture  of  foreign  blood.  That  is  for  the 
great  creators  with  unusual  instinct  and  insight  and 
patience  and  perseverance  to  undertake. 

FIXING  TYPE. 

Sometimes  one  has  in  his  flock  a  few  individuals, 
or  maybe  but  one,  that  is  of  unusual  beauty  and  ex- 
cellence. This  may  arise  from  a  skillful  combining 
of  bloodlines  within  the  breed,  or  there  may  be  born 
within  the  flock  an  animal  different  and  better  than 
any  of  the  others.  We  may  not  be  able  to  point  the 
reason  for  this  difference — this  betterment.  It  is, 
perhaps,  a  "mutation,"  as  the  newer  students  of 
breeding  would  say.  However  it  came,  it  is  such 
that  we  wish  very  much  to  fix  it  in  the  flock,  to  breed 
many  like  unto  it.  How  can  we  accomplish  this? 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


95 


96  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

To  fix  it  in  its  entirety  may  indeed  prove  impossible, 
if  we  have  but  one  animal  possessing  this  unusual 
excellence.  The  best  that  we  can  do  is  to  breed  it, 
supposing  it  to  be  a  ram,  to  a  number  of  the  most 
likely  ewes  and  save  the  ewe  lambs  that  come  near- 
est the  type  sought.  Should  any  of  these  ewe  lambs 
show  weakness  of  constitution  they  must  be  rejected, 
or  Ft  least  ignored  in  this  effort,  and  the  strong  ones 
may  be  bred  to  their  own  sire.  The  progeny  of 
them  will  carry  three-fourths  of  his  blood,  and  will 
be  much  like  him  in*  appearance  and  character.  Sup- 
posing, now,  there  happen  to  be  two  lambs  each 
having  unusual  quality,  possessing  this  desired 
type,  each  sired  by  the  same  sire  but  by  different 
dams.  They  may  be  bred  together  and  another 
step  taken  towards  fixity  in  character. 

It  is  worth  considering  that  in  breeding  a  ewe  to 
her  own  sire  one  is  not  inbreeding  more  than  when 
he  breeds  together  two  animals  born  from  two  ewes 
and  having  a  common  sire.  The  closest  inbreeding 
is  when  a  ram  is  bred  to  a  ewe  having  the  same 
mother  as  well  as  the  same  sire. 

There  is  absolutely  no  other  way  to  fix  type  or  to 
get  great  uniformity  in  a  flock  than  this  system  of 
inbreeding.  It  has  been  adopted  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  by  all  the  great  improvers  of  breed. 

There  are  certain  dangers  inherent  in  a  system  of 
inbreeding.  Nature  permits  a  certain  amount  of  it, 
but  it  is  done  always  under  the  law  of  combat.  The 
strongest  male  gets  possession  of  the  females ;  thus 
nature's  weaklings,  no  matter  what  the  form  or 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  97 

fleece,  are  steadily  weeded  out.  Under  nature's 
system  the  males  of  all  animals  of  the  deer  and 
sheep  families  roam  far  during  the  breeding  season, 
yet  it  is  likely  that  incestuous  breeding  is  very 
common. 

The  effect  of  incestuous  breeding  is  not  well 
understood  and  there  are  men  who  deny  its  dangers. 
There  seems,  however,  to  be  abundant  evidence  that 
it  develops  an  accumulation  of  weaknesses  of  con- 


BLACK-FACED    RAMS. 


stitution,  it  makes  the  progeny  delicate  and  lessens 
its  size  and  vitality. 

Furthermore,  it  often  seems  to  lead  to  partial  or 
total  sterility.  Not  to  go  deeply  into  this  debatable 
subject  we  will  say  that  inbreeding  is  probably  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  the  creation  of  breeds  and  in  the 
further  development  and  fixing  of  types,  but  that  it 
should  be  attempted  only  by  the  skilled  breeder,  the 
man  sure  that  he  has  a  type  worth  fixing.  The  man 


98  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

who  is  breeding  for  the  market  will  find  that  he  will 
do  best  to  keep  as  far  from  inbreeding  as  possible. 
And  this  brings  us  to 

KENEWED   VITALITY  FKOM   FKESH   BLOOD. 

There  is  something  wonderfully  invigorating  in 
the  mingling  of  unrelated  bloods.  This  has  long 
been  recognized  by  the  advocates  of  cross-breeding. 
It  has  indeed  become  a  well-known  saying  that 
"cross-bred  animals  are  most  thrifty. "  "Cross- 
bred lambs  fatten  first. "  Among  cattle  breeders 
the  truth  is  admitted,  and  swine  breeders  very  often 
cross-breed  for  greater  vigor  and  thrift. 

It  is  not  so  generally  known  that  the  bringing  to- 
gether of  unrelated  animals,  especially  of  the  same 
breed  if  they  may  happen  to  have  been  grown  under 
different  environment,  most  usually  brings  as  much 
added  vigor  and  thrift  as  though  two  distinct  breeds 
had  been  brought  together.  There  is  great  advan- 
tage in  bringing  vigor  without  losing  the  breed  and 
its  special  character  and  purpose. 

The  man,  then,  who  finds  his  well-bred  flock  need- 
ing a  renewal  of  life,  needing  a  general  "toning  up" 
and  rejuvenation,  should  not  resort  to  cross-breed- 
ing, supposing  that  he  has  already  a  breed  of  value 
for  his  purpose,  but  should  seek  within  his  own 
breed  sires  as  remotely  related  as  he  can  find,  and 
possessing  as  much  health  and  vigor  as  he  can  find. 

He  will  find  a  marvelous  result  to  come^from  this 
new  mating  with  fresh  blood.  His  old  flock  has  in 
it  latent  excellencies  that  lie  dormant  onlv  because 


SELECTION   AND  MANAGEMENT  99 

the  spark  of  life  has  burned  dimly  for  a  time.  With 
the  renewal  of  that  vital  spark  and  the  greater  in- 
tensity of  life  that  results  these  old  and  almost  for- 
gotten excellencies  will  be  in  a  manner  revived,  so 
that  the  progeny  may  be  not  merely  better  than  the 
dams  but  better  than  the  sire  as  well.  The  writer 
has  seen  very  striking  instances  of  this,  when  the 
ewe  flock  was  of  good  inheritance  and  only  suffer- 
ing from  lack  of  fresh  blood. 

VITALITY    THE    THING   TO    STBIVE    FOR. 

The  sheep  under  domestication  is  not  so  strong 
as  we  would  like  to  see  it.  In  truth  there  is  no  ani- 
mal under  our  care  with  less  resistance  than  the 
sheep.  Men  do  not  enough  consider  this.  They 
study  points,  like  the  quality  of  the  fleece,  or  the 
form  of  the  head,  the  covering  of  the  legs  or  nose, 
the  shape  of  the  ear,  and  doubtless  these  are  all  of 
use,  but  the  first  and  foremost  essential  in  a  profit- 
able flock  is  vigor,  vitality,  life.  That,  if  it  is  abun^ 
dant,  will  insure  strong  lambs,  will  insure  ewes  with 
right  mother  instinct  and  milk  to  serve  that  will 
insure  lambs  that  eat  and  thrive  and  grow  and  fat- 
ten and  bring  good  prices  at  the  market,  no  matter 
whether  the  ear  is  true  to  type  or  the  wool  grows 
on  the  nose  or  not.  To  the  market  breeder  the 
writer  counsels — seek  vigor,  build  constitution,  en- 
courage health  and  thrift  and  the  profits  will  be  sure. 

SELECTING  THE   EWES. 

Pure-bred  ewes  may  be  selected  much  as  the  ram 
is,  avoiding  overgrown  individuals,  and  seeking  for 


100  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

uniformity  of  type  and  evidence  of  perfect  health. 
In  buying  any  sheep  look  well  to  the  skin,  that  it  be 
pink  in  color  and  the  fleece  bright  and  elastic,  for 
a  pale  skin  and  sunken  fleece  are  sure  indications 
of  lack  of  health  and  should  invariably  be  rejected, 
no  matter  how  good  the  blood  or  breeding.  The 
grades  that  are  to  be  made  the  body  of  the  flock 
may  be  of  Merino  foundation,  with  excellent  ex- 
pectation of  success.  If  these  are  not  to  be  found 
near  at  home,  they  may  often  be  bought  of  good 
quality  at  the  great  markets  when  discarded  by  the 
ranchmen.  Usually  ewes  are  sent  to  market  be- 
cause of  their  age  and  beginning  lack  of  teeth,  so 
that  it  is  not  profitable  to  retain  them  for  more  than 
two  lamb  crops  on  the  farm.  They  will  thrive  for 
that  time  and,  having  saved  the  best  of  their  ewe 
lambs,  there  is  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  a  useful 
grade  flock,  while  the  mothers  may  be  fattened  anc1 
sent  back  to  market.  These  western  ewes  have  in- 
deed made  good  on  eastern  farms  and  in  the  South 
as  well.  Having  sufficient  Merino  blood  to  make 
them  hardy  and  shear  well,  coming  free  from  para- 
sites, they  are  all  ready  to  make  good  profit  for 
their  new  owners.  See  to  it  that  one  does  not  get 
old  toothless  ewes.  Do  not  insist  on  getting  those 
with  black  faces.  See  that  on  their  arrival  on  the 
farm  they  are  carefully  dipped,  to  prevent  outbreaks 
of  scab;  so  far  as  possible  put  them  on  fresh, 
tminfected  grass,  so  that  they  will  not  in  their  new 
homes  pick  up  internal  parasites.  Breed  them  to 
good  rams,  sell  all  of  the  lambs,  and  after  two  or 


SELECTION  AND 

more  crops  sell  the  ewes  and  get  a  fresh  start. 
Thus  treated  these  westerns  are  almost  sure  to  re- 
turn good  profits. 

It  is  unwise  to  select  ewes  shearing  too  heavy 
fleeces.  A  moderately  heavy  fleece  betokens  the 
stronger  sheep  with  greater  feeding  capacity.  Se- 
lect that  sort.  Choose  the  short-legged  ewes,  with 
good  backs,  and  as  thick  as  you  can  find  them. 

The  best  time  of  the  year  to  stock  a  farm  with 
sheep  is  in  the  early  fall.  Getting  the  ewes  home 
then,  you  have  time  to  make  their  acquaintance 
while  work  is  not  crowding  on  the  farm.  Then  you 
can  see  to  the  mating,  and  during  the  first  winter 
things  will  go  as  you  plan,  and  you  are  certain  of 
one  good  lamb  crop.  Your  troubles  will  not  begin 
for  six  or  eight  months.  They  need  not  begin  at 
all  if  you  will  observe  carefully  some  rules  for 
avoidance  of  parasites,  to  be  laid  down  later. 

GETTIXG  HOME  WITH  THE  FLOCK. 

The  writer  remembers  with  delight  the  day  when 
he  drove  to  Woodland  Farm  his  first  flock  of  ewes. 
It  was  a  fine  sunny  day  in  November.  The  sheep 
were  well  selected  and  round  and  plump,  all  young 
ewes.  They  traveled  willingly  along  the  country 
road  through  a  quiet  neighborhood  where  great  oaks 
overarched  the  way  and  stopping  now  and  then  to 
browse  the  green  grass  among  the  purpling  wild 
asters. 

The  writer  was  but  a  boy  then,  newly  wedded, 
filled  with  high  hopes  and  dreaming  brave  dreams 


IN  AMERICA 


of  the  future.  The  young  wife  met  him  and  to- 
gether they  drove  home  the  little  flock!  Happy  be- 
ginning it  proved  to  be,  though  many  lessons  re- 
mained to  be  learned  and  many  discouragements  to 
be  fought  through,  yet  the  coming  of  the  flock 
meant  the  beginning  of  the  upbuilding  of  the  old 
farm  and  of  the  fortunes  of  its  owners. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  DIPPING. 

When  the  flock  comes  home  the  first  duty  is  to 
give  it  a  thorough  dipping.  There  are  two  reasons 
for  this:  the  one  that  there  may  be  ticks  upon  the 
sheep;  the  other  because  of  danger  from  scab 
germs.  Any  sheep  shipped  by  rail  or  penned  in 
stock  yards  or  railway  stock  pens  is  liable  to  be 
infected  with  scab  germs.  One  or  two  scab  insects 
on  a  sheep  may  multiply  until  the  entire  flock  is 
scabby  in  a  few  months  and  entail  great  suffering 
upon  the  sheep  and  loss  upon  the  owner.  Preven- 
tion is  easy  and  cheap,  though  cure  after  the  disease 
has  progressed  far  is  harder.  Another  reason  for 
dipping  is  the  sheep  tick.  This  is  a  common  pest 
upon  farms  and  greatly  interferes  with  the  thrift 
of  sheep,  while  it  is  entirely  preventable,  and  in 
truth  upon  the  farm  of  the  writer  with  a  thousand 
sheep  there  are  years  when  not  a  single  tick  is  to 
be  found.  Sheep  ticks  so  far  as  we  know  inhabit 
no  other  animal  and  once  rid  of  them  you  will  re- 
main rid  of  them  unless  you  buy  infested  sheep  or 
carry  ticks  upon  your  own  clothing  or  they  are 
brought  by  shearers. 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  103 

It  is  very  easy  and  inexpensive  entirely  to  rid  a 
flock  of  ticks  and  as  easy  to  prevent  the  attack  of 
scab. 

THE   SCAB  GERM. 

This  is  a  minute  form  of  parasitic  insect  too  small 
to  be  easily  discovered  with  the  naked  eye,  which 
by  burrowing  in  the  skin,  or,  rather,  by  irritating 


DIPPING    SHEEP    AT    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    WISCONSIN. 

the  skin  and  causing  it  to  form  a  crust  by  its  own 
exudations  beneath  which  it  burrows,  greatly  afflicts 
the  sheep,  causing  intense  itching,  loss  of  wool,  loss 
of  flesh,  and  in  the  end  frequently  brings  death  from 
the  result  of  the  distress  and  emaciation  consequent 
upon  its  disturbance. 

The  scab  germ  multiplies  with  fearful  rapidity, 
each  female  laying  in  two  or  three  days  15  eggs, 
of  which  ten  will  hatch  females  and  five  males. 


104  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

These  eggs  hatch  and  soon  mature  insects  that  begin 
laying  eggs.  Gerlach,  the  German  authority,  says 
that  in  15  days  one  female  will  become  the  mother 
of  15,  after  30  days  of  150,  after  45  days  of  1,500, 
after  60  days  of  15,000.  Up  to  this  time  there  has 
not  been  much  seen  of  the  result  of  the  disease,  but 
here  begins  the  wholesale  onslaught  of  the  legion 
upon  their  hosts,  for  in  75  days  there  are  150,000, 
and  in  90  days  1,500,000 !  Now  let  them  alone  for 
a  little  longer  and  the  result  is  sufficiently  terrify- 
ing. 

The  symptoms  of  scab  are  first  the  uneasiness  of 
the  sheep,  "which  reaches  around  to  the  affected 
part  (that  is  apt  to  be  on  the  shoulder,  neck  or  side, 
though  it  may  appear  in  almost  any  part,  but  wher- 
ever it  appears  it  causes  intense  itching)  and  bites 
at  the  wool  or  paws  with  its  foot  trying  to  scratch 
the  spot.  If  now  you  will  carefully  examine  the 
animal  you  will  find  under  the  wool  at  this  spot  of 
infection  the  skin  whitened  and  perhaps  exuding 
a  watery  secretion.  One  cannot  with  the  naked 
eye  see  the  scab  insects  at  work.  A  little  later  this 
spot  if  untreated  becomes  a  veritable  scab  and  the 
adjacent  regions  are  attacked.  It  rapidly  spreads 
throughout  the  flock,  the  affected  sheep  rubbing 
against  posts  and  racks,  dislodging  mites  that 
fasten  in  turn  upon  other  sheep. 

To  cure  scab  thorough  dipping  is  necessary.  To 
prevent  it  all  sheep  should  be  well  dipped  after 
every  railway  journey  or  exposure  in  infected 
yards  or  pens.  Dipping  for  prevention  is  cheap 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  105 

and  easy.     Dipping  for  cure  is  not  so  much  harder. 
The  main  thing  is  to  dip,  and  dip  thoroughly. 

THE  DIPPING  VAT. 

This  should  be  a  simple  trough  of  wood  or  metal 
or  concrete,  16  inches  wide,  4  feet  deep  and  as  long 
as  one  wishes  to  build.  The  shorter  the  vat  the 
slower  the  process  of  dipping,  as  the  sheep  when 
scabby  must  soak  for  two  minutes.  For  a  farm  vat 
a  length  of  10  to  12  feet  will  be  ample,  as  time  can 
be  allowed  them  thoroughly  to  soak.  The  vat  must 
be  narrow  so  that  the  sheep  cannot  turn  around  in 
it.  It  must  be  deep  so  that  each  sheep  can  be 
plunged  clear  in  all  over  so  that  no  spot  will  remain 
untreated.  It  is  not  necessary  to  lower  the  sheep 
into  the  vat  or  to  raise  them  out  again ;  they  may  as 
well  be  thrown  in  or  made  to  jump  in  at  one  end, 
and  that  end  of  the  vat  should  go  down  perpendicu- 
larly; at  the  other  end  there  must  be  a  gradual  in- 
cline up  which  they  can  walk.  For  a  small  flock  the, 
bottom  level  of  the  vat  need  not  be  more  than  four 
feet  long,  with  an  incline  beginning  there  and  run- 
ning gradually  to  the  level  and  to  a  draining  plat- 
form from  which  the  drip  should  be  collected  and 
discharged  into  a  vat  again.  A  width  at  the  bottom 
of  6  inches  is  ample,  as  only  the  feet  go  clear  down 
and  the  less  width  the  less  liquor  is  required  to 
charge  the  vat.  In  case  there  is  genuine  and  seri- 
ous affection  of  scab,  the  sheep  should  be  held 
rigidly  in  for  two  minutes,  and  in  that  time  the  head 
should  be  immersed  briefly  twice.  If  there  is  only 


106  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

suspected  infection,  however,  and  not  yet  any  out- 
break, the  sheep  may  be  run  through  as  rapidly  as 
convenient,  being  only  sure  that  each  one  is  com- 
pletely immersed  in  the  liquor,  for  they  will  remain 
wet  for  24  hours  at  least  after  emerging  from  the 
dip.  In  a  practice  of  many  years  the  writer  has 
never  had  scab  break  out  in  a  flock  thoroughly 
dipped  once  by  simply  running  the  sheep  through. 
There  are  other  essential  conditions  to  be  observed, 
however,  which  will  be  mentioned  now. 

The  dip  should  be  hot.  This  does  not  mean  warm, 
nor  boiling,  but  as  hot  as  the  operator  can  endure 
to  plunge  in  his  bare  arm.  It  is  better  to  test  the 
temperature  in  this  manner  than  by  use  of  a  ther- 
mometer. If  the  latter  is  used  a  temperature  of 
110  deg.  Fahrenheit  will  be  about  right,  but  the  bare 
skin  is  the  best  thermometer.  V 

The  water  used  must  be  softened  or  " broke/7 
To  do  this  use  ordinary  concentrated  lye,  enough  to 
make  the  water  a  little  biting  and  give  it  an  oily  feel 
like  soap.  This  is  an  inexpensive  process. 

The  dip,  whatever  it  is,  must  be  used  of  good 
strength.  There  are  various  good  preparations  in 
use,  most  of  which  are  effective  if  used  of  sufficient 
strength. 

On  the  farm  of  the  writer  the  coaltar  prepara- 
tions are  used  almost  always,  because  they  prove 
effective  and  cheap,  and  are  pleasant  to  operate 
with.  They  are  healing  to  the  skin  and  effectually 
dissipate  any  tendency  to  eye  disease  and  are  sure 
death  to  all  forms  of  insect  life  whatever.  These 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


107 


a 

o 

I  § 

S  1-1 

)  H^ 

~  ® 

0.  ^ 


108  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

coaltar  dips  are  given  various  names,  as  "Zeno- 
leum,"  "Naptholenm,"  ' '  Day tholeum, "  etc.,  and 
similar  in  composition  and  effect.  The  directions 
often  say  to  use  them  at  a  strength  of  1  to  100 ;  that 
is,  of  one  part  of  dip  to  100  parts  of  water.  This  is 
not  safe  in  combating  scab,  and  as  the  cost  of  dip- 
ping is  mostly  in  labor,  the  writer  always  uses  them 
at  a  strength  of  1  to  40,  and  has  had  no  failure 
to  cure  every  sort  of  parasitism  and  has  never  in- 
jured a  sheep  by  its  use. 

In  truth,  one  winter  when  scab  broke  out  among 
some  undipped  sheep  (that  had  been  dipped  in  Chi- 
cago, but  imperfectly)  and  the  farm  flock  became 
infected,  we  dipped  all  in  the  middle  of  winter,  turn- 
ing back  to  the  old  quarters,  and  cured  each  case 
effectually,  so  that  there  has  never  been  a  reappear- 
ance of  the  disease  upon  the  farm.  The  dipping 
was  repeated  in  ten  days  to  give  chance  for  eggs  to 
hatch. 

This  thorough  dipping  also  eradicates  ticks,  which 
is  no  small  matter. 

While  I  use  and  like  for  the  dipping  of  farm 
flocks  the  coaltar  dips,  I  should  mention  that  on  the 
ranges  where  great  numbers  of  sheep  are  treated 
the  lime  and  sulphur  dip  is  in  common  use.  Lime 
and  sulphur  boiled  together  make  a  chemical  com- 
pound very  destructive  to  insect  life.  Many  sheep- 
owners  believe  that  nothing  else  is  so  effective  as 
lime  and  sulphur.  Assuredly  it  is  effective,  when 
rightly  compounded,  and  it  is  cheap.  I  cannot  rec- 
ommend the  eastern  farmer  to  bother  with  it;  con- 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  109 

siderable  skill  and  care  are  needed  rightly  to 
prepare  the  bath.  Briefly,  the  liquor  is  prepared 
by  boiling  24  to  33  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur 
with  8  to  11  pounds  of  fresh  quicklime  in  25  to  30 
gallons  of  water,  the  boiling  continued  for  at  least 
two  hours  until  the  lime  and  sulphur  have  combined, 
and  the  resultant  liquid  has  a  chocolate  or  liver 
color.  It  is  then  diluted  with  warm  water  to  make 
100  gallons  and  used  hot.  Full  particulars  can  be 
found  in  Bulletin  No.  21,  on  "Sheep  Scab,"  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

KEGULAR  DIPPING   OF   THE   FARM    FLOCK. 

While  new  sheep  added  to  the  flock  should  be 
dipped  whenever  they  arrive,  barring  exceedingly 
cold  weather,  the  regular  flock  needs  its  annual  bath, 
and  this  should  be  given  immediately  after  shear- 
ing, when  ewes  and  lambs  may  all  be  dipped  at  a 
nominal  cost.  It  takes  nearly  a  gallon  of  liquid  to 
dip  a  yearling  of  medium  size  with  its  fleece  on,  but 
to  dip  a  sHorn  sheep  takes  not  more  than  a  quart, 
and  the  little  lamb  a  small  amount.  This  annual 
cleaning  up  prevents  ticks  getting  foothold  and 
heads  off  a  lot  of  other  troubles,  such  as  sore  eyes 
and  mouth,  canker  of  teats,  and  sheep  lice. 

It  is  not  a  troublesome  operation  to  dip  a  flock  of 
sheep.  The  water  should  be  conveniently  at  hand 
and  some  means  of  heating  it.  An  open  kettle  of 
30  to  40  gallons  capacity  will  serve  if  nothing  else 
is  convenient ;  red-hot  irons  may  be  thrown  into  the 
tank  to  heat  what  is  left  from  a  previous  dipping; 


110  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

there  should  be  a  large  pen  to  hold  the  sheep  and  a 
small  one  close  to  the  tank  for  a  catching  pen.  Just 
at  the  end  of  the  tank  there  may  be  an  incline  about 
3  feet  long  covered  with  smooth  sheet  metal,  and 
this  may  be  greased  so  that  when  a  sheep  steps  on 
it  or  is  lifted  upon  it,  it  will  easily  slide  down  into 
the  plunge. 

A  force  of  five  men,  two  of  whom  keep  the  dip 
mixed  and  replenished,  and  three  of  whom  put  in 
and  take  out  sheep,  will  readily  dip  100  in  an  hour, 
though  if  they  have  their  fleeces  on  they  should 
drain  for  a  longer  time  than  would  make  this  prac- 
ticable. It  is  not  often  necessary  to  assist  the  sheep 
to  climb  out,  but  there  should  be  one  man  ready  and 
watching  with  care  to  see  that  all  are  fully  sub- 
merged and  not  stay  in  too  long.  The  writer  has 
never  seen  pregnant  ewes  abort  their  lambs  after 
careful  dipping,  and  has  frequently  dipped  500 
without  killing  or  injuring  one. 

The  cheapest  tank  is  made  of  galvanized  iron. 
The  best  is  made  of  concrete,  which  will  endure  for- 
ever if  rightly  made. 

SUMMAKY  OF   DIPPING. 

Dip  every  sheep  when  it  comes  to  the  farm  as 
soon  as  it  is  rested,  especially  with  care  when  it 
may  have  come  by  rail. 

When  scab  infection  is  suspected,  but  none  is  vis- 
ible, dip  once  by  simple  and  complete  immersion  in 
a  dip  hot  and  strong  enough. 

When  scab  is  already  in  evidence  let  the  affected 


SELECTION  AND   MANAGEMENT  111 

sheep  soak  in  the  dip  for  two  minutes,  first  having 
rubbed  and  loosened  up  the  scabs.  After  ten  days 
dip  again;  always  turn  freshly  dipped  sheep  into 
their  sheds  so  that  they  may  rub  their  wet  fleeces 
against  the  woodwork  and  disinfect  that. 

Dip  the  whole  flock  every  spring  if  there  are  ticks, 
immediately  after  shearing,  being  sure  that  no  sheep 
or  lamb  escapes. 

After  the  flock  is  clean  it  will  remain  clean  if 
newly  bought  sheep  are  dipped  before  being  added 
to  it.  There  is  no  necessity  to  dip  a  clean  flock. 

At  shearing  time  should  the  owner  shear  his  own 
sheep  and  there  be  but  two  or  three  ticks  to  each 
animal,  he  should  cut  them  in  two  with  the  shears 
and  dip  the  lambs. 

It  is  useless  to  dip  sheep  that  are  clean  of 
vermin,  besides  it  may  slightly  injure  the  wool. 
I  have  seen  whole  neighborhoods  in  Michigan 
where  now  no  one  dips  (once  many  did),  and 
where  yet  there  are  no  ticks.  The  reason  is  that 
these  men  having  warm  shelters  shear  before  lamb- 
ing, often  in  March,  and  if  there  should  be  a  few 
ticks,  they  can  be  cut  off  or,  very  likely,  the  sheep 
itself  will  pick  them  off  before  the  lambs  are  born. 
To  shear  after  lambing  and  without  dipping  is  the 
surest  way  to  breed  ticks,  since  they  take  refuge  on 
the  lambs  as  soon  as  the  ewes  are  shorn. 

There  is  no  more  need  of  having  ticks  on  a  sheep 
farm  than  there  is  of  wolves.  The  wolves  have 
largely  been  killed  off  in  the  older  settled  regions, 
but  it  has  required  persistent  and  well  organized 


112  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

wolf  drives  in  some  sections,  to  get  rid  of  these  var- 
mints. Industry  and  persistence  will  clean  up  the 
ticks. 

FALL  TKEATMENT   OF  THE  EWE  FLOCK. 

The  ewes  being  brought  presumably  to  new  and 
fresh  pastures  and  rid  of  their  vermin,  thrive  ad- 
mirably. If  grass  is  not  abundant  they  ought  to 
have  a  little  extra  feed  at  times,  as  it  is  Nature's 
way  to  make  them  gain.  A  field  of  rape  in  which 
they  may  run,  alternating  at  their  pleasure  with 
grass,  makes  them  improve  rapidly.  Pumpkins  fed 
on  grass,  seeds  and  all,  are  excellent  for  the  ewes. 
Not  only  are  the  pumpkins  good  feed,  but  their 
seeds,  besides  being  nourishing,  have  in  them  great 
medicinal  virtues.  Pumpkin  seeds  are  efficient  ver- 
mifuges. One  of  the  best  treatments  for  tape  worm 
in  the  human  subject  is  the  infusion  of  pumpkin 
seeds.  Worms  destroy  more  sheep  than  dogs  do, 
and  it  must  be  the  constant  study  of  the  shepherd 
to  avoid  them. 

The  reason  for  desiring  the  flock  to  thrive  at  this 
time  is  that  it  is  near  the  mating  season,  and  if  the 
sheep  are  in  fine,  thrifty  condition,  the  ewes  will 
the  more  rapidly  conceive  and  drop  a  greater  num- 
ber of  twins. 

Yet  another  reason  is  that  a  sheep  which  starts 
into  winter  in  good  thrift  comes  through  much 
stronger  with  less  feed  than  one  that  starts  in  in 
poor  flesh. 

A  handful  of  grain  fed  in  October  or  November 
is  worth  a  peck  of  feed  to  a  thin  ewe  in  January, 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  113 

not  that  the  flock  should  be  neglected  later  on,  but  it 
is  essential  that  sheep  should  enter  winter  well  for- 
tified and  strong. 

MATING. 

Before. the  mating  begins  one  should  carefully  go 
over  his  flock  and  assort  the  ewes.  Ewe  lambs  must 
be  taken  out  and  none  bred  that  are  not  past  a  year 
old.  Old  ewes  that  have  lost  their  teeth  and  are 
evidently  not  quite  able  to  go  safely  through  the 
winter  and  nourish  well  their  lambs,  are  better  con- 
signed to  the  fattening  pen.  At  least  there  should 
be  a  mark  put  upon  them  that  will  indicate  their 
condition,  so  that  they  may  be  given  extra  care  and 
attention.  Quite  often  with  such  ewes  it  is  most 
profitable  to  breed  them  and  by  careful  feeding  keep 
them  as  strong  as  you  dare  till  lambing  time,  after 
this  to  give  them  a  large  allowance  of  grain, 
ground  if  need  be,  so  as  to  push  them  with  their 
lambs,  and  they  will  often  make  as  good  lambs  as 
the  other  ewes  and  be  themselves  ready  to  follow 
their  offspring  to  market  a  few  weeks  after  the 
lambs  have  left  them.  A  suitable  mark  for  these 
culled  ewes  is  to  clip  off  the  end  of  one  ear. 

Yet  another  thing  for  which  to  search,  is  a  spoiled 
udder  or  a  ewe  without  perfect  teats.  Quite  often 
such  ewes  are  found,  and  to  have  them  drop  lambs 
without  ability  to  suckle  them  is  to  entail  great  dis- 
appointment and  trouble  on  the  shepherd. 

There  is  a  temptation  to  breed  the  young,  imma- 
ture ewes,  particularly  if  they  are  well  grown,  but 


114  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

it  is  wiser  not  to  do  this,  as  it  leads  to  the  steady 
decrease  in  size  of  your  sheep,  and  by  weakening 
the  ewe's  constitution  because  of  the  heavy  drain 
upon  her,  you  make  her  the  more  liable  to  attacks 
of  parasites,  those  foes  of  the  sheep  and  shepherd 
that  never  can  be  forgotten  with  safety. 

PUTTING  I>T   THE  KAM. 

The  ewe  carries  her  lamb  from  142  to  150  days, 
or,  roughly,  five  months.  It  is  well  to  so  time  the 
putting  in  of  the  ram  as  to  bring  the  lambs  at  the 
season  when  they  will  best  fit  in  with  your  scheme 
of  management.  Much  depends  here  upon  the  breed 
under  consideration,  for  it  is  natural  for  the  Dorset 
and  the  Merino  to  drop  their  lambs  very  early,  so 
that  they  may  be  mated  with  the  ram  in  September, 
when  the  lambs  will  come  early  in  February;  or  if 
bred  in  August  they  will  come  in  January;  or  in 
July  to  have  them  in  December.  With  Shropshires 
it  is  unusual  for  lambs  to  appear  so  early  as  De- 
cember or  January,  though  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber is  an  excellent  time  to  mate  them;  with  South- 
downs  the  same  time  will  serve,  though  they  natu- 
rally lamb  later,  and  with  Cotswolds  and  Lincolns 
it  is  unusual  for  lambs  to  be  born  before  March  or 
April.  If  the  shepherd  has  good  quarters  for  his 
flock  he  may  as  well  try  for  some  early  lambs ;  they 
will  serve  to  occupy  his  time  in  winter,  and  coming 
then  when  he  has  leisure,  he  will  lose  but  a  small 
proportion  of  them.  Winter  lambs  well  nourished 
in  infancy  make  much  stronger  and  better  sheep 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  115 

than  late  lambs,  as  they  go  on  to  grass  so  big  and 
lusty  as  to  defy  many  of  the  evils  that  attack  later 
lambs. 

MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    RAM. 

The  ram  during  the  summer  days  should  have 
the  run  of  a  small  lot  with  access  to  shade,  with 
abundant  food,  yet  not  too  much,  and  with  company 
of  other  rams  or  of  a  few  wethers,  or  some  ram 
lambs  or  even  a  few  ewes  running  with  him.  He 
should  have  careful  attention  that  he  remains  in 
perfect  health,  especial  care  being,  taken  not  to  put 
him  on  a  piece  of  infected  grass  where  he  may  de- 
velop parasites.  Before  the  breeding  season  he 
should  be  entirely  separated  from  the  ewes,  and  if 
not  in  strong  condition,  given  a  regular  feed  of  oats 
and  bran  or  some  similar  feed  twice  a  day,  not 
enough  to  fatten  him,  but  to  put  him  in  vigorous 
condition. 

It  is  wise  not  to  ever  turn  him  with  the  ewes,  but 
better  to  bring  them  to  him  each  morning  early 
while  it  is  yet  cool,  penning  them  in  a  small  pen  so 
that  there  is  just  room  enough  for  him  to  move 
about  readily  among  them,  and  where  they  cannot 
easily  escape  you  when  you  desire  to  catch  some  of 
them. 

After  the  ewes  are  brought  up,  let  him  come  in 
with  them,  and  he  will  soon  single  out  one  that  may 
be  in  heat.  Allow  him  to  serve  her  once  only  and 
immediately  put  her  out,  marking  her  at  the  same 
time  so  that  you  will  know  that  she  has  been  bred. 


116  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

It  is  wise  to  use  a  different  color  in  marking  each 
week,  thus  all  the  ewes  that  are  bred  the  first  week 
will  be  marked  red,  all  the  next  week  blue,  the  third 
week  yellow,  the  fourth  week  black,  the  fifth  week 
green,  and  so  on.  This  marking  is  done  with  a 
brush  and  a  daub  of  paint;  on  the  back  of  the  head 
or  on  the  shoulder  is  a  good  place. 

After  the  first  ewe  has  been  taken  out,  the  ram 
will  proceed  quietly  to  search  for  another.  Unless 
he  is  a  very  vigorous  ram,  it  is  unwise  to  allow  him 
to  serve  more  than  four  during  a  morning,  and  if  a 
large  number  seem  to  be  in  heat,  it  will  be  well  to 
get  them  up  again  after  sunset  in  the  evening.  The 
ram  has  an  exceedingly  vigorous  reproductive  sys- 
tem, and  has  power  to  impregnate  more  females 
than  most  animals,  even  although  his  work  is  con- 
fined to  a  short  period  each  year. 

The  ewes  that  are  served  and  put  out  should  be 
put  by  themselves  and  not  returned  to  the  flock  for 
three  days,  else  they  may  be  still  in  heat  and  re- 
ceive unnecessary  attention  from  the  male.  One 
service  will  as  surely  impregnate  as  more  and  will 
beget  stronger  lambs. 

Managed  in  this  way  a  ram  will  easily  care  for 
40  or  50  ewes  and  may  serve  100  if  he  is  unusually 
strong  and  vigorous  and  well  cared  for.  He  should 
be  kept  quiet  all  day,  in  a  cool  place,  and  well  fed 
on  stimulating  food  such  as  oats  and  bran  with 
clover  hay. 

One  advantage  of  this  way  of  managing  ewes  is 
that  one  will  know  those  that  do  not  take  the  ram 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  117 

at  all  and  can  put  them  out  of  the  flock ;  and  by  giv- 
ing them  a  little  extra  feed,  they  will  soon  fatten, 
when  they  may  be  sold. 

There  is  a  practice  not  very  common  among  shep- 
herds of  forcibly  holding  ewes  that  persistently 
reject  the  ram,  and  allowing  him  to  serve  them. 
They  will  not  often  conceive  from  this  service,  but 
it  occasionally  causes  them  to  come  in  heat  naturally 
in  from  ten  days  to  three  weeks.  Some  early  lamb 
breeders  make  considerable  use  of  this  practice.  It 
can  do  the  ewe  no  harm  in  case  it  is  unsuccessful. 

CAEE    OF    THE    PKEGNANT    EWE. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  stumbling  block  in  the  way 
of  the  inexperienced  shepherd  is  in  the  care  of  his 
ewe  flock  during  pregnancy.  Either  he  feeds  them 
too  well,  or  on  unsuitable  foods,  or  he  deprives  them 
of  air  and  exercise,  or  he  goes  to  the  other  extreme 
and  lets  them  brave  the  storms  without  enough 
food.  Either  condition  will  surely  be  fatal  to  his 
fortune,  though  of  the  two  extremes  the  worse  is 
that  of  too  much  food  and  no  exercise.  Such  a 
course  is  surely  fatal  to  his  hopes  of  a  large  crop  of 
strong  lambs. 

If  one  would  have  success  with  these  pregnant 
ewes  he  should  consider  their  condition  in  a  state 
of  nature.  Then  they  roamed  the  hills,  selecting 
the  higher  points  as  places  to  sleep;  they  sheltered 
beside  rocks  or  under  pines.  They  were  not  in 
large  flocks  and  found  sufficient  food  as  they  were 
not  restrained  by  fences.  They  had  abundant  exer- 


118  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

else  and  always  fresh  air.  Doubtless  when  their 
lambs  came  they  were  very  strong  and  vigorous, 
able  soon  to  run  beside  their  mothers.  Under  ranch 
conditions  today  lambs  are  born  very  strong,  and 
it  is  rare  to  find  one  so  weak  as  to  be  unable  to 
suck  without  aid. 

The  writer  remembers  vividly  his  first  experience 
with  lambing  ewes.  The  first  winter  he  let  them 
have  the  run  of  a  pasture,  with  shelter,  fed  clover 
and  corn  stover,  and  the  result  was  a  good  lamb 
crop.  A  few  of  these  lambs  were  so  remarkably 
promising,  one  selling  for  $18  at  weaning  time,  that 
he  was  encouraged  to  attempt  to  do  much  better  the 
next  year.  That  winter  proved  to  be  quite  cold  and 
stormy,  so  he  kept  them  rather  close.  Having 
learned  the  value  of  wheat  bran  as  a  bone  and  mus- 
cle builder,  he  fed  these  ewes  about  all  the  bran  they 
wanted,  and  they  consumed  a  great  deal,  with  clo- 
ver hay. 

The  lamb  crop  came  early,  and  the  lambs  were 
strong,  being  the  product  of  hand  coupling  with  a 
vigorous  sire.  The  difficulty  was  in  the  enormous 
size  of  many  of  them,  some  being  so  large  of  bone 
that  it  was  nearly  impossible  for  them  to  be  deliv- 
ered at  all.  One  Shropshire  weighed  17  pounds  at 
birth !  Its  mother  died  soon  after  its  delivery,  and 
the  lamb  itself  was  lost  through  unskillful  feeding. 
The  net  result  was  a  small  crop  of  magnificent 
lambs  secured  at  a  cost  of  great  labor  and  pains. 

The  next  year  an  old  friend  and  shepherd  coun- 
seled him  to  adopt  a  radically  different  policy. 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  119 

This  was  to  allow  the  flock  to  run  in  the  pasture, 
sheltering  in  open  sheds  »and  under  the  trees,  and 
subsisting  solely  on  coarse  forage  such  as  corn 
stover  and  oat  straw.  Having  in  the  barns  a  great 
number  of  lambs  that  were  being  fed  for  fattening, 
there  was  some  excuse  for  neglecting  the  ewes. 

Unfortunately  ewes  in  winter  time  because  of 
their  long  fleeces,  appear  to  be  in  good  condition 
when  they  are  not,  and  the  writer  had  no  idea  how 
very  thin  in  flesh  these  were  becoming  until  lambs 
started  to  drop  in  April.  Then  his  troubles  began. 
The  lambs  came  strong  enough,  as  a  rule,  nor  were 
they  too  large  to  be  delivered  easily ;  but  many  ewes 
having  been  poorly  nourished,  had  no  milk,  and 
would  not  own  their  lambs.  The  truth  is  that  there 
is  a  direct  connection  between  the  milk  glands  of  an 
animal  and  the  part  of  the  brain  where  lies  love  of 
offspring,  and  in  the  sheep  at  least  it  is  rare  to  find 
mother  love  where  there  is  no  milk  to  go  along 
with  it. 

The  result  was  that  the  writer  was  put  to  his 
wits'  end  to  make  the  ewes  own  their  lambs  and  to 
try  good  feeding  to  bring  them  to  their  milk  flow. 
Many  lambs  were  lost,  and  the  whole  result  was 
disheartening. 

The  simple  truth  is  that  pregnant  ewes  must  have 
so  far  as  possible  natural  conditions.  They  must 
have  enough  food,  and  that  of  a  suitable  nature 
properly  to  nourish  the  growing  foetus  without 
stimulating  too  much  the  development  of  bone. 
They  must  come  to  lambing  in  good  heart,  what  the 


120  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

farmer  would  call  "fat,"  but  not  according  to  the 
butcher's  standard.  They  must  have  abundant  op- 
portunity to  exercise  and  to  get  fresh  air.  Thus 
treated  their  lambs  should  come  as  strong  as  wild 
things  and  give  little  trouble.  It  is  the  natural 
thing  for  a  lamb  to  be  born  strong,  to  live  at  birth, 
since  all  its  ancestors  have  done  the  like  since  lambs 
were  born  into  the  world. 

There  is  danger  in  well-bred  ewes  highly  fed  upon 
such  foods  as  wheat  bran  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
that  the  lambs  may  have  excessive  bony  develop- 
ment, and  it  is  not  now  the  practice  of  the  writer  to 
feed  much  bran  before  weaning,  but  to  give  instead 
bright,  sweet  corn  stover  and  alfalfa  hay.  Too 
much  alfalfa  hay  alone  will  sometimes  make  the 
lambs  rather  large  at  birth.  If  the  coarse  forage  is 
not  abundant  and  of  excellent  quality,  the  shepherd 
should  feed  a  small  daily  allowance  of  grain.  A 
mixture  of  corn  and  oats  may  be  used,  which  should 
be  fed  in  wide  flat-bottomed  troughs,  so  that  the 
ewes  cannot  rapidly  swallow  it  as  they  will  when 
fed  in  V-shaped  troughs. 

A  run  to  a  blue-grass  pasture  is  an  excellent 
thing,  and  if  the  grass  is  permitted  to  grow  up  in 
the  fall  and  lie  uneaten,  no  small  part  of  the  suste- 
nance of  the  flock  will  come  from  that.  A  shelter- 
ing bit  of  woodland,  in  which  they  may  wander, 
affords  shelter  and  amusement,  and  well  repays  the 
ground  on  which  it  stands. 

While  the  flock  should  be  out  of  doors  every  fine 
winter's  day,  yet  the  shepherd  should  have  his 


SELECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  121 

charges  in  mind  and  see  that  each  ewe  comes  to  the 
barn  before  storms  break,  and  always  the  flock 
should  be  shut  in  at  night.  Yet  unless  the  weather 
is  very  severe  they  should  have  much  fresh  air  in 
their  night  quarters — a  large  opening  on  the  lee- 
ward side  is  the  best  provision. 

One  can  hardly  emphasize  the  importance  of 
keeping  sheep  dry  in  the  fall,  winter  and  spring.  A 
sheep  rarely  has  sense  enough  to  come  in  out  of  the 
rain;  not  feeling  the  drops  it  will  stand  in  the  rain 
until  wet  through.  A  fleece  will  take  up  as  much 
as  10  pounds  of  water.  This  must  all  be  evaporated 
by  the  heat  of  the  animal's  body.  One  reason  why 
sheep  thrive  sc  well  in  northern  countries  is  that 
there  is  no  rain  falls  in  winter;  the  sheep  are  dry. 
If  dry,  very  much  less  feed  than  would  be  required 
if  they  were  wet  from  time  to  time  will  keep  them 
comfortable ;  in  fact,  no  amount  of  feed  can  make  a 
wet  sheep  thrive.  For  this  reason  I  like  to  shear 
ewes  early  in  the  spring;  when  shorn  they  feel  the 
falling  rain  and  hurry  to  shelter,  taking  their  lambs 
with  them.  If  they  had  on  their  winter's  coats  they 
would  stay  out  until  the  lambs  were  soaked, 


CHAPTER  V. 
CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB. 

THE   EWE   LAMB. 

A  breeding  ewe  requires  about  12  square  feet  of 
floor  surface.  There  should  be  provided  in  the  ewe 
barn  movable  feed  racks,  long  and  narrow,  of  such 
type  that  they  will  form  partitions  wherever  need- 
ed. These  racks  are  best  made  24  inches  wide,  36 
inches  high,  with  a  tight  bottom  about  6  inches  up 
from  the  ground.  The  sides  about  this  bottom  may 
be.  of  6-inch  boards,  forming  a  shallow  feed  box. 
On  this  foundation  will  be  nailed,  vertically,  slats  y2 
inch  thick,  4  inches  wide  and  30  inches  long.  These 
slats  may  be  placed  7  inches  apart,  so  that  the  sheep 
can  thrust  their  heads  clear  into  the  rack  to  feed. 
There  will  then  be  much  less  loss  of  feed  than  if  the 
slats  are  placed  close  together,  for  in  that  case  the 
ewes  pull  all  the  hay  through  the  cracks  and  drop 
most  of  it  under  their  feet.  There  will  be  a  little 
dust  get  into  the  wool  of  the  necks  in  feeding  in 
such  a  rack,  but  it  is  a  trifling  damage  compared  with 
the  loss  of  forage  in  any  '  'feed-saving"  rack. 

After  using  many  forms  of  racks,. the  writer  now 
uses  these  in  preference  to  any  others,  for  in  them 
may  be  fed  grain,  bran,  silage  or  any  sort  of  hay. 

(122) 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  123 

The  ewe  barn  must  have  provision  for  most  ample 
ventilation.  That  is  best  accomplished  by  having 
on  two  sides  clear  across  the  barn  a  system  of  doors 
so  arranged  that  they  are  divided  in  halves  hori- 
zontally, the  lower  part  of  the  door  swinging  as  an 
ordinary  gate  swings,  the  upper  half  hinged  at  its 
upper  edge  and  lifting  up  to  a  horizontal  position, 
upheld  by  wooden  props  or  pendant  chains. 

By  means  of  these  upper  doors  the  ventilation 
may  be  made  so  thorough  that  the  air  will  be  prac- 
tically as  good  within  the  barn  as  outside,  or  in  cold 
weather  one  side  may  be  completely  closed  and  the 
other,  to  leeward,  opened  or  in  very  cold  weather 
all  may  be  closed  tight. 

It  will  be  disastrous  to  confine  the  sheep  in  a  poor- 
ly ventilated  building.  Loss  of  thrift,  colds  and 
catarrh  will  surely  result. 

In  England  sheep  are  almost  never  confined  to 
buildings  at  all.  Their  usual  mild  winters  make  out- 
door feeding  practicable  with  them,  whereas  it  is 
not  so  with  us.  We  must  feed  in  racks  during  the 
time  that  they  are  hurdling  off  turnips  in  winter  and 
much  of  the  loss  of  thrift  and  character  of  English 
sheep  bred  here  is  owing  to  unskillful  wintering  in 
poorly  ventilated  barns.  During  the  winter  sea- 
son the  shepherd  has  opportunity  to  get  well  ac- 
quainted with  his  flock.  He  should  learn  to  know 
each  ewe  by  her  countenance;  and  she  should  learn 
to  know  him  and  to  know  so  little  of  evil  of  him  that 
lie  can  approach  any  one  and  catch  her  without  diffi- 
culty and  without  frightening  her.  A  shepherd's 


124  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

crook  that  will  catch  her  by  the  hind  leg  is  useful  in 
the  sheepfold,  though  I  prefer  for  ordinary  use  the 
old-fashioned  crook  that  catches  her  by  the  neck. 
Any  blacksmith  can  make  in  a  few  moments  a  crook 
of  an  old  horse-rake  tooth,  set  in  a  long  wooden 
handle.  It  should  be  so  shaped  that  it  will  with  a 
little  pressure  slip  over  the  neck  of  the  ewe,  widen- 
ing at  the  opening  considerably  to  make  it  easy  of 
use,  and  the  end  should  be  turned  over  in  a  little  Coil 
so  that  it  cannot  accidentally  wound  the  skin. 

Before  the  lambs  are  due  it  is  well  to  turn  each 
ewe  up  on  her  rump,  using  her  gently,  and  with 
shears  clip  the  wool  away  from  the  udder;  particu- 
larly the  little  locks  that  might  be  seized  by  the  lamb 
when  searching  for  the  teat. 

Before  the  lambing  season  the  shepherd  should 
provide  himself  with  some  little  panels,  made  of 
light  wood,  like  doors,  each  panel  36"  high  and  48" 
long.  Two  of  these  panels  should  be  hinged  together 
at  the  ends  so  that  they  may  be  folded  together  and 
laid  away  or  opened  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  L. 
The  use  of  these  is  to  make  little  pens  in  which  to 
place  ewes  about  to  lamb,  or  newly  lambed,  to  pre- 
vent their  lambs  straying  away  and  getting  mixed 
through  the  flock.  Thus  many  lambs  will  be  saved 
that  otherwise  would  be  lost  and  much  of  the  usual 
vexatious  work  of  the  shepherd  avoided.  To  use 
these  panels,  one  is  opened  at  right  angles  in  the 
corner  of  the  lambing  room  and  by  aid  of  hooks 
fastened  at  the  free  ends  to  the  wall,  thus  making  a 
pen  4'x4'.  As  it  is  tight,  the  lamb  cannot  creep  out, 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  125 

and  the  ewe  being  unable  to  see  will  be  more  tran- 
quil. When  there  is  need  of  another  such  pen  it  is 
set  up  alongside  the  first  one  and  thus  on  until  a 
row  has  been  erected  across  the  end  of  the  building. 
If  there  be  need,  another  row  can  join  these. 

The  observant  shepherd  can  usually  foretell  the 
advent  of  a  lamb,  for  the  ewe  shows  by  her  appear- 
ance and  her  actions  that  she  is  expecting  it.  Be- 
cause of  her  instinct,  indeed  it  is  not  unusual  to  see 
her  hunting  anxiously  about  for  the  lamb  before 
it  has  been  born  at  all!  It  is  wise  to  place  her  by 
herself  before  this  event  occurs,  if  it  can  convenient- 
ly be  done. 

CAKE  AT  LAMBING  TIME. 

There  should  be  small  difficulty  in  the  ewe's  de- 
livery of  her  lamb  if  she  has  been  rightly  fed  and 
treated.  There  will  probably  be  no  occasion  for  in- 
terference of  the  shepherd,  yet  he  should  be  watch- 
ful, and  when  she  has  been  in  distress  for  some  time 
without  effect  he  should  not  hesitate  to  go  to  her 
assistance.  The  difficulty  may  be  one  of  wrong 
presentation.  Naturally  the  lamb  comes  with  front 
feet  first,  and  nose  just  between  them.  Even  when 
the  presentation  is  right  the  shepherd  may  be  of 
great  help  sometimes,  if  the  lamb  is  of  large  size,  by 
gently  manipulating  the  parts,  pulling  a  little  at  the 
lamb  and  pushing  the  external  parts  of  the  ewe  back 
until  the  head  is  free.  Then  the  nose  may  be  wiped 
so  that  the  lamb  can  breathe  and  in  a  moment,  after 
the  ewe  has  again  begun  her  labor,  you  may  gently 


126  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

draw  the  lamb  outward  until  the  shoulders  are  de- 
livered— the  hardest  part.  I  usually  leave  her  then, 
for  the  hips  and  hing  legs  come  away  readily,  and 
the  ewe  generally  gets  up  at  once  and  seeks  her 
lamb  and  proceeds  to  lick  it  and  caress  it  with  her 
tongue.  It  should  soon  try  to  stand  and  in  about  15 
minutes  will  try  to  suck.  If  it  finds  the  teat  without 
aid  you  may  call  it  half  raised. 

Usually  it  is  well  to  help  the  lamb  to  its  first  meal, 
especially  if  the  "ewe  is  young,  and  it  is  her  first 
born.  The  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to  gently  set 
her  on  her  rump,  as  though  you  were  going  to  shear 
her,  kneeling  down  behind  her  and  with  her  shoul- 
ders resting  against  you.  First  start  the  milk  from 
her  teats,  then  taking  the  lamb  with  the  right  hand 
(the  left  arm  being  under  the  ewe  to  support  her), 
lay  it  down  on  its  side  and  opening  its  mouth  insert 
the  teat,  when  it  will  usually  begin  immediately  to 
suck.  Let  it  get  a  pretty  fair  bellyful  and  its 
chances  are  bright  for  coming  on  in  good,  strong 
fashion. 

The  shepherd  should  observe  whether  it  after- 
ward goes  to  sucking  on  its  own  account,  and  if  it 
does  there  need  not  be  many  slips  between  that  lamb 
and  a  ten-dollar  bill,  if  it  is  born  right! 

Supposing  there  is  a  wrong  presentation.  The 
shepherd  is  fortunate  if  he  has  a  small  hand,  for  it 
is  his  duty  to  help  put  things  right.  We  cannot 
here  give  details  of  how  this  is  to  be  done,  but  know- 
ing the  natural  presentation  the  shepherd  should  lie 
able  to  study  it  out  for  himself.  He  must  carefully 


CARE  OP  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  127 

grease  his  hand  with  lard  or  vaseline  and  avoid  as 
far  as  possible  any  rough  treatment  or  injury  to 
the  delicate  parts.  The  writer  has  taken  several 
lambs  away  with  hind  feet  first  without  diffi- 
culty, but  should  the  head  be  turned  back  it  must 
be  straightened  before  delivery  is  possible. 

There  will  be  much  more  difficulty  with  young 


SOUTHDOWN    EWES. 


ewes  than  with  older  ones,  so  that  the  inexperienced 
shepherd  is  wise  if  he  begins  with  ewes  most  of 
which  have  lambed  once  or  twice  before  they  came 
to  his  care. 

In  very  cold  weather  the  lambing  barn  should  be 
made  as  comfortable  as  possible,  without  depriving 
it  altogether  of  fresh  air,  and  even  then  when  twin 
lambs  are  born  there  may  be  need  of  assistance  or 


128  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

one  of  them  may  perish  before  it  is  made  dry  and 
given  milk  to  supply  inward  heat.  It  is  an  excellent 
plan  to  have  at  hand  a  tub  or  half  barrel;  a  salt 
barrel  sawed  in  two  serves  well  and  in  this  have  a 
jug  of  hot  water.  The  lamb  may  be  laid  in  this  tub 
and  covered  with  a  blanket  until  its  mother  can  give 
it  her  attention.  Or  a  chilled  lamb,  if  only  slightly 
chilled,  may  be  warmed  in  this  manner.  An  excel- 
lent plan  and  simpler  if  the  shepherd  is  at  hand 
when  the  first  of  twins  is  born  is  to  lay  it  in  a  tub 
on  two  or  three  inches  of  wheat  bran  and  cover  it 
all  but  the  nose  with  more  bran.  It  will  keep  as 
warm  as  toast  there  and  the  bran  will  help  absorb 
moisture.  Then  when  it  is  given  to  the  ewe  she  will 
lick  off  the  adhering  bran  without  injury  to  herself. 

Supposing  that  through  some  accident  the  new- 
born lamb  has  gotten  thoroughly  chilled;  the  best 
manner  of  warming  it  is  by  immersion  in  water  as 
hot  as  one  can  bear  his  hand  in.  This  will  soon  be- 
come cooled  and  more  hot  water  should  be  added, 
taking  care  of  course  not  to  scald  the  lamb.  When 
warm  and  revived  it  should  be  wiped  dry  and  taken 
to  its  mother  and  held  till  it  is  filled  with  her  milk. 
The  writer  has  in  this  manner  revived  lambs  seem- 
ingly dead.  It  is  not  wise  to  give  cow's  milk  if  that 
can  be  avoided,  and  if  necessary  the  cow's  milk 
should  be  diluted  with  some  quite  warm  water. 
Some  shepherds  give  a  drop  or  two  of  whiskey  to 
a  chilled  lamb  and  it  may  sometimes  prove  bene- 
ficial. 

The  next  day  after  the  lamb  is  born   the  ewe 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  129 

should  be  milked  clean.  The  shepherd  should  then 
observe  whether  the  lamb  is  taking  all  her  milk,  and 
if  there  is  much  surplus  he  should  milk  it  out  clean 
every  day  until  such  time  as  the  lamb  can  use  it. 
This  is  especially  necessary  with  Dorset  ewes,  and 
some  other  breeds  occasionally  need  attention.  It  is 
not  well  for  the  lamb  to  take  in  the  first  milk  se- 
creted after  being  retained  stagnant  in  the  dam's 
udder  for  an  undue  length  of  time.  Large  milking 
ewes  while  troublesome  raise  the  finest  lambs  and 
are  most  profitable  in  the  end. 

Occasionally  a  young  ewe  will  not  own  her  lamb 
or  an  older  ewe  may  neglect  or  disown  hers.  Gen- 
erally, if  the  lamb  is  put  with  her  in  a  small  pen 
and  helped  to  get  its  rations  for  a  few  times  she 
will  own  it.  If  she  persists  in  her  neglect  she  may 
have  her  head  fastened  into  a,  pair  of  small  stan- 
chions so  that  she  can  eat  but  not  get  away  from 
the  lamb  nor  attack  it,  nor  readily  prevent  its  suck- 
ing. These  stanchions  may  be  made  of  two  pieces 
of  1x4  pine  driven  into  the  earthen  floor,  and  the 
tops  held  together  by  a  short  board  nailed  on.  There 
is  no  cruelty  about  this  practice  and  it  is  generally 
effective  when  persisted  in  for  a  few  days. 

Occasionally  there  will  be  a  ewe  whose  lamb  will 
die  and  leave  her  with  an  udder  filled  with  milk. 
This  gives  opportunity  to  change  her  to  some  twin 
lamb  whose  mother  would  be  better  for  the  relief. 
To  accomplish  this  transference  the  best  plan  is  to 
remove  the  skin  of  the  dead  lamb  soon  after  its  death 
and  slip  it  over  the  living  lamb.  It  may  be  pulled 


130  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

off  as  a  stocking  is  removed  and  rubbed  with  a  little 
salt  to  dry  it  and  at  once  slipped  onto  the  twin  lamb 
with  the  feet  thrust  through  the  holes  where  the  for- 
mer lamb's  legs  were.  Introduced  now  to  the  moth- 
er of  the  dead  lamb,  confined  with  her  in  a  small 
pen,  it  is  not  often  that  she  will  refuse  at  once  to 
own  it.  Ewes  know  their  lambs  entirely  by  scent, 
and  thus  the  odor  of  the  skin  tells  her  that  it  is 
truly  her  own  lamb  that  is  with  her.  This  skin  may 
be  taken  off  after  a  few  days. 

It  is  not  good  shepherding  to  permit  a  ewe  to  be 
without  a  lamb  sucking  her  when  there  are  lambs 
enough  to  go  around,  and  usually  there  will  be  so 
many  twins  among  ewes  of  the  mutton  breeds  that 
there  are  enough  lambs  for  all  and  perhaps  25  to 
100  over. 

Occasionally  a  ewe  will  be  found  of  so  perverse 
a  disposition  or  so  undeveloped  in  udder  or  mal- 
formed that  she  will  not  raise  a  lamb  at  all.  The 
cure  for  her  is  to  cut  off  half  of  one  ear,  which  is 
the  " brand  of  Cain,"  and  indicates  that  she  is  to 
go  to  the  butcher  as  soon  as  fat. 

A  man  in  the  West  once  sold  for  one  dollar  a  re- 
cipe for  making  ewes  own  lambs,  either  their  own 
or  some  others.  Having  paid  my  dollar  I  can  testify 
that  there  is  merit  in  his  plan,  which  is  to  care- 
fully wash  the  lam]b,  especially  about  the  rump  and 
tail  and  on  top  of  the  head,  removing  thus  all  trace 
of  scent  so  far  as  possible.  Next  you  are  to  catch 
the  ewe  and  milk  upon  the  head  and  rump  of  the 
lamb  from  her  udder,  rubbing  it  well  over  him,  and 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  131 

lastly  to  put  a  handful  of  milk  on  her  own  nose  and 
in  her  mouth.  Then  hold  the  lamb  to  her  side  and 
when  it  is  sucking  permit  her  to  smell  of  it.  Often 
this  will  succeed,  but  if  she  has  lambed  some  days 
previously  the  recourse  to  stanchions  will  be  surer 
and  less  troublesome. 

FEEDING  THE   EWE   AFTER   LAMBING. 

If  the  ewe  has  been  well  nourished  during  preg- 
nancy she  will  come  in  with  her  lamb  strong  and 
has  udder  well  filled.  At  once  when  the  lamb  is 
born  she  must  be  turned  away  from  the  flock,  and 
if  the.  shepherd  would  give  her  a  trifle  of  care  that 
she  really  needs  then,  he  will  keep  her  by  herself 
or  in  a  pen  with  other  ewes  in  like  condition  for  a 
few  days.  During  this  time  she  should  be  somewhat 
sparingly  fed  with  grain,  or  it  may  even  be  best  to 
give  her  none  at  all,  depending  upon  her  condition. 
It  is  unwise  to  force  her  early  to  a  milk  flow  in  ex- 
cess of  what  the  lamb  can  consume.  In  a  few  days, 
however,  she  will  need  good  food  in  generous 
amounts  for  the  lamb  will  draw  heavily  upon  her 
system  for  nourishment.  Food  alone  cannot  keep 
up  her  milk  flow.  If  she  is  a  large  milker  she  will 
decline  somewhat  in  condition,  even  when  well  fed, 
showing  that  her  flesh  also  turns  to  milk. 

Bear  always  in  mind  two  facts.  Sheep  are  rumi- 
nating animals,  accustomed  by  nature  to  eating 
bulky  foods  of  moderate  nutritive  properties,  and 
not  accustomed  to  eating  again.  Next,  sheep  have 
delicate  digestions,  easily  disturbed  by  improper 


132  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

• 

feeding,  excessive  feeding  or  sudden  changes  in  the 
amount  of  feed  given.  Therefore  make  no  sudden 
changes  and  least  of  all  never  make  a  large  addition 
of  grain  to  her  daily  ration.  In  England  ewes  sel- 
dom taste  grain  at  all,  but  eat  instead  grass,  hay  and 
roots,  mainly  swede  turnips.  Here,  where  roots  are 
not  so  easily  grown  and  fed  (excepting  in  Canada 
and  northern  America),  more  reliance  is  put  upon 
grain,  and  with  care  in  feeding  it  may  take  the  place 
very  well. 

A  sensible  treatment  of  the  ewe  that  lambs  in 
winter  is  to  keep  her  mostly  on  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  until  after  the-  lamb  comes.  There  will  be  no 
need  to  limit  the  amount  of  hay  that  she  consumes 
after  lambing  and  then  when  her  lamb  takes  all  her 
milk  and  wishes  more,  begin  feeding  her  a  little 
wheat  bran.  "For  a  week  bran  will  suffice,  gradu- 
ally increasing  the  amount  fed,  then  there  may  be 
added  to  it  a  little  chopped  corn  or  barley  and  a 
little  later  some  oilmeal.  A  pound  a  day  of  this 
mixture  will  keep  her  in  good  milk  flow  and  it  must 
be  gradually  led  up  to  for  about  ten  days. 

About  the  right,  proportions  of  the  mixture  are 
100  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  100  pounds  of  chopped 
corn  and  20  pounds  of  oilmeal.  This  with  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  will  push  her  to  a  very  heavy  milk  flow. 
If  she  is  a  large  ewe  she  may  consume  more  than  a 
pound  to  advantage,  as  much  as  two  pounds  being 
consumed  by  some  large  Dorset  ewes  belonging  to 
the  writer. 

If  this  feed  is  so  gradually  introduced  to  the  ewe 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB 


133 


that  her  digestion  is  not  disturbed  nor  her  milk 
flow  at  first  too  much  stimulated  there  is  small  dan- 
ger of  overfeeding  her,  supposing  that  the  lamb  is 
to  be  pushed  for  early  market.  Her  unselfish  nature 
turns  the  feed  quickly  into  milk  and  little  of  it  goes 
to  nourish  her  own  body. 

It  is  much  easier,  however,  to  keep  her  in  large 
milk  flow  if  we  provide  succulent  food  at  this  time. 


LEICESTER     EWES     IN     NEBRASKA. 


Corn  silage  is  easily  provided  and  is  as  good  for 
the  ewe  as  for  the  cow.  It  should  be  made  from 
woll-matured  corn  so  as  to  develop  its  sugar  and 
prevent  an  excess  of  acid  from  forming.  Some  com- 
plaint has  been  made  of  the  effect  of  corn  silage 
upon  sheep,  but  usually  the  trouble  has  been  that 
the  feeders  have  tried  to  make  it  the  main  part  of 
the  ration.  It  should  always  be  fed  in  connection 


134  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

with  good  sound  dry  hay  and  some  grain.  As  corn 
silage  from  well-matured  corn  has  in  it  a  good  deal 
of  grain  when  it  is  fed,  the  rest  of  the  ration  should 
be  of  wheat  bran,  oilmeal  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 
Since  the  foregoing  paragraph  was  written  there 
has  been  much  use  made  of  corn  silage  for  breeding 
ewes  and  fattening  lambs.  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey  of 
the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  has  shown  how 
silage  may  cheapen  the  gains  made  by  lambs,  and 
Profs.  J.  H.  Skinner  and  W.  W.  Smith  of  the  Pur- 
due (Indiana)  station  have  fed  silage  to  pregnant 
ewes,  milking  ewes  and  winter  lambs.  The  con- 
clusions in  each  instance  are  that  silage  may  well  be 
made  part  of  the  winter  ration.  It  seems  to  benefit 
the  digestion  and  cheapen  gains.  It  saves  both 
grain  and  hay.  Apparently  it  increases  the  weight 
of  wool — in  the  Indiana  experiment  nearly  40/100 
of  a  pound  per  head  (say  10  cents  worth).  On  many 
farms  silage  is  regularly  fed  to  sheep,  especially  to 
fattening  lambs.  On  Woodland  Farm  it  was  fed  for 
a  series  of  years  with  profit.  Our  practice  was  to 
make  the  silage  from  well-matured  corn  which  fa- 
vors a  sweet  silage,  to  feed  no  more  than  1%  to  2 
pounds  per  head  per  day,  and  to  feed  it  in  connec- 
tion with  good  alfalfa  hay  and  corn.  One  year, 
however,  nature  took  a  hand  in  the  game  and  sent 
a  frost  that  killed  the  corn  before  it  was  mature. 
We  filled  the  silos  with  this  frosted  corn,  pretty 
sappy  in  stalk,  and  the  result  was  sour  silage  in 
the  bottom  of  the  silo.  When  we  had  fed  the  lambs 
nearly  through  the  winter,  with  little  loss  and  all 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  135 

looking  well,  there  suddenly  appeared  an  epidemic 
of  disease  due  to  "forage  poisoning, "  and  we  lost 
I  think  about  60  head  of  fine,  fat  lambs,  nearly 
ready  for  the  market.  I  have  known  other  cases  of 
injury  from  silage  feeding,  though  few  of  such 
wholesale  losses  (60  out  of  1,400  in  10  days).  The 
symptoms  of  forage  poisoning  resulting  from  feed- 
ing silage  are  a  staggering  gait,  lack  of  desire  to 
eat,  trembling  of  the  body,  finally  a  twisting  or 
curving  of  the  body,  stiffening  of  joints  and  muscles, 
then  death.  We  found  no  remedy,  nor  did  any  of 
the  affected  lambs  recover.  The  lesson  seems  to  be 
to  feed  only  good  sound  sweet  silage,  never  in  ex- 
cessive amounts  (1%  pounds  per  day  is  enough  for 
a  70-pound  lamb,  and  2  pounds  is  the  limit  for  a 
mature  ewe,  if  safety  is  desired),  and  to  feed  for 
not  too  long  a  time.  I  have  known  ewe  flocks  win- 
tered on  silage  alone  go  to  complete  ruin  in  the 
spring.  I  should  never  feed  any  sour  or  moldy 
silage  to  sheep. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  along 
the  great  lakes,  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  north- 
ern Minnesota,  besides  northern  New  York  and  New 
England  and  in  all  of  Canada  (besides  Oregon, 
Washington  and  British  Columbia)  roots  form  a 
very  important  part  of  the  ewe 's  ration.  Eoots  have, 
indeed,  almost  created  the  English  breeds  of  mut- 
ton sheep.  They  are  safer  to  feed  than  silage  and 
better.  In  England  it  is  customary  to  grow  turnips, 
mostly  swedes,  which  are  seldom  pulled  but  are 
consumed  on  the  ground  on  which  they  grow,  being 


136  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

enclosed  by  hurdles  and  eaten  off  a  block  at  a  time. 
In  very  wet  or  bad  weather  some  are  pulled  and 
carried  to  the  sheep,  being  fed  on  grass  or  in  open 
sheds. 

The  use  of  roots  is  productive  of  great  good  to 
the  ewe  flock.  They  are  succulent  and  start  a  nat- 
ural milk  flow,  whereas  grain  naturally  goes  more 
to  producing  flesh  and  fat.  There  is  no  danger  of 
the  ewes  consuming  too  many  roots.  They  push  her 
easily  and  naturally  to  a  strong  flow  of  milk  that 
has  very  healthful  properties.  Ewes  highly  fed  on 
grain  often  give  milk  that  is  injurious  to  their  lambs. 
Of  this  there  is  no  danger  when  roots  are  substituted 
in  large  part  for  the  grain. 

The  shepherd  who  can  readily  grow  roots  has  a 
distinct  advantage  over  the  one  who  relies  upon 
dry  hay  and  grain  for  wintering  his  ewe  flock.  Most 
of  the  best-developed  sheep,  the  ones  seen  at  our 
fall  shows,  come  from  root-growing  regions.  Un- 
happily turnips  are  not  very  easily  grown  in  the 
cornbelt  and  below,  though  mangels  will  thrive  well 
to  the  southward. 

In  England  and  Canada  swede  turnips  form  the 
bulk  of  the  roots  grown  for  sheep.  They  should  be 
sown  on  productive  soil,  well  prepared.  The  time 
of  sowing  varies  with  climates,  but  usually  early  in 
July  the  seed  should  go  into  the  ground.  It  is  well 
to  have  the  land  ridged  nicely  and  to  sow  the  seed 
on  the  top  of  the  ridge,  which  makes  much  easier 
hoeing  and  thinning  or  "  singling. "  In  dry  climates 
of  course  ridging  must  be  attempted  with  caution 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  137 

not  to  get  the  ridges  sharp  and  tall.  Mangels  are 
more  productive  than  swedes  but  are  not  so  rich 
and  are  unsafe  to  feed  to  rams.  Carrots  are  more 
trouble  to  grow  than  either  but  are  the  best  when 
grown. 

Many  distressing  troubles  come  from  sudden  in- 
crease in  the  grain  ration  of  the  ewe  after  lamb- 
ing. It  is  a  very  inducing  cause  of  garget,  or  it 
may  stop  the  flow  of  milk  altogether,  or  it  may  cause 
founder,  stiffness  of  joints  and  great  lameness. 

TKOUBLES  OF  YOUNG  LAMBHOOD. 

The  lamb  has  his  trials  and  dangers  too.  Sup- 
posing that  he  gets  accidentally  shut  away  from  his 
mother  for  some  hours,  until  he  is  very  empty  and 
she  very  full  of  milk,  if  then  he  gets  sudden  access 
to  her  he  will  usually  die  from  the  overburden  of 
milk  taken  in.  When  the  shepherd  discovers  that 
ewe  and  lamb  have  been  separated  for  several  hours 
he  should  catch  the  ewe  and  milk  her  nearly  clean 
before  allowing  them  to  come  together. 

Then  there  are  contagious  sore  eyes.  These  are 
caused  by  a  germ.  There  are  probably  several  kinds 
of  germs  that  do  the  mischief,  and  the  result  is  an 
inflammation  and-  weeping  of  the  eye  with  conse^ 
quent  distress  and  lack  of  thrift.  The  cure  is  for- 
tunately easy.  Taking  some  one  of  the  coaltar 
dips,  and  diluting  with  water  nearly  as  much  as  for 
killing  scab,  the  head  should  be  well  wet  and  care 
taken  that  some  of  the  fluid  actually  reaches  the  eye. 
It  may  be  painful  for  a  moment,  but  it  works  a 


138  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

speedy  cure.  The  writer  has  repeatedly  cured  this 
trouble  by  dropping  a  tiny  drop  of  the  pure  dip,  un- 
diluted, into  the  open  eye  of  a  lamb.  Tears  start 
vigorously  and  dissolve  it  while  the  eyelid  wink- 
ing vigorously  carries  it  to  every  part.  The  cheeks 
should  be  saturated  also  with  dip,  properly  diluted. 

SORE   MOUTH   AND   TEATS. 

Quite  often  a  contagious  form  of  sore  mouth  af- 
fects young  lambs  and  the  sores  are  seen  also  upon 
the  teats  and  udders  of  the  ewes.  These  sores  form 
scabs  along  the  edges  of  the  lips  arid  pustules  upon 
the  teats.  Often  they  become  so  troublesome  as 
to  cause  the  death  of  the  lamb,  more  usually  simply 
interfering  with  its  thrift  so  much  as  to  sometimes 
make  it  profitless.  The  writer  has  found  this  dis- 
ease, which  sheep  writers  usually  spend  so  much 
time  in  describing  and  discussing,  of  the  easiest  pos- 
sible control.  Assuming  that  it  is  of  germ  origin, 
to  rub  off  the  scabs  and  wash  the  lips  with  strong 
solution  of  coaltar  dip  and  to  treat  the  udders  in 
the  same  manner  has  with  the  author  in  every  case 
served  to  effect  a  radical  cure.  Quite  often  this  dis- 
ease breaks  out  upon  the  mouths  of  western  range 
lambs  upon  their  arrival  at  an  eastern  farm  for 
feeding.  The  treatment  is  to  rub  off  the  scabs  and 
apply  the  undiluted  dip  to  the  fresh  surface.  In 
recommending  these  coaltar  dips  the  writer  means 
such  preparations  as  are  usually  named  "Zeno- 
leum,"  "Naptholeum,"  "Milk  Oil,"  etc.  They  are 
much  alike,  really  impure  coaltar  creosote,  and  most 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  139 

effectual  destroyers  of  germ  life,  and  when  used 
with  discretion  are  among  the  best  friends  of  the 
shepherd. 

FEEDING  THE  LAMBS. 

Lambs  early  develop  a  hunger  for  solid  food  and 
begin  nibbling  at  hay  and  sampling  ground  feed  or 
whatever  is  at  hand.  At  the  age  of  ten  days  they 
will  begin  seriously  to  eat  ground  feed.  Advantage 
of  this  should  be  taken  and  the  lamb  encouraged  to 
eat  as  early  and  as  much  as  possible.  During  the 
early  life  of  an  animal  nutrition  is  more  perfect  than 
later  and  the  cost  of  producing  growth  is  much  less. 
Digestion  is  more  perfect,  the  young  animal  can 
consume  more  in  proportion  to  its  weight  and  it  is 
more  perfectly  assimilated.  A  pound  of  flesh  on 
the  baby  lamb  can  therefore  be  made  at  a  much  less 
cost  than  after  he  is  older.  Seeing  that  the  young 
mutton  commands  by  far  the  higher  price  it  is  plain 
that  the  earlier  weight  is  put  on  the  better  so  far 
as  profit  is  concerned 

The  practice  in  England  is  to  have  in  the  hurdles 
in  which  the  flock  is  usually  confined,  "creeps"  or 
openings  wide  enough  to  let  the  lambs  slip  through 
while  restraining  the  ewes.  These  creeps  usually 
have  small  rollers  at  the  sides  so  that  the  lambs  as 
they  grow  and  nearly  fill  the  opening  may  squeeze 
through  without  injury  to  themselves  or  loosening 
of  their  wool.  Thus  the  lambs  "run  forward"  to 
an  enclosure  of  their  own  where  they  find  fresK 
grazing  of  turnips  or  vetch  or  clover  or  grass,  ac- 


140  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

cording  to  the  situation  and  season,  and  in  these 
small  enclosures  are  kept  troughs  replenished  regu- 
larly twice  a  day  with  some  grain  mixture.  English 
feeders  use  great  amounts  of  "cake,"  which  is 
either  of  linseed  or  cottonseed.  This  cake  is  made 
at  American  oil  mills  where  by  pressure  oil  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  crushed  seed.  American  feeders 
usually  buy  "oilmeal,"  or  ground  cake,  whereas  our 
British  cousins  prefer  to  buy  the  actual  cakes  and 
break  them  on  the  farm  into  bits  as  large  perhaps  as 
hickory  nuts,  or  somewhat  smaller  for  young  lambs. 
English  lambs  come  from  the  hurdles  at  the  age  of 
three  or  four  months  weighing  20  to  100  pounds. 
They  will  do  as  well  in  America,  under  right  man- 
agement, as  the  writer  has  frequently  demonstrated 
in  his  own  practice.  The  fact  is  that  one  must  keep 
the  ewes  in  any  case  and  must  feed  them,  so  that 
there  is  a  certain  fixed  expense  connected  with  rear- 
ing the  lambs.  This  expense  produces  a  certain 
amount  of  growth;  now  by  the  addition  of  supple- 
mentary foods  this  growth  may  be  greatly  increased 
at  very  slight  expense.  The  amount  of  extra  food 
consumed  by  the  young  lamb  to  make  an  extra  pound 
of  growth  will  not  cost  more  than  one  or  two  cents. 
To  make  a  pound  of  growth  on  him  after  he  has 
left  his  mother  will  cost  from  3%  to  7  cents.  Then 
too,  the  early  growth  is  what  brings  the  highest 
price.  And  again  the  lamb  that  matures  very  early 
and  gets  away  to  market  escapes  a  hundred  ills  that 
lie  in  wait  for  the  lamb  that  remains  on  the  farm 
for  nearly  a  year;  so,  altogether,  the  arguments  are 


CARE  OP  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB 


141 


all  for  pushing  the  farm-born  lambs  as  rapidly  as 
possible  by  extra  allowances  of  feed. 

Of  course  lambs  that  are  pure-bred  and  intended 
to  stay  on  the  farm  to  maturity  must  be  fed  a  dif- 
ferent ration  from  those  that  are  merely  to  get  fat 
quick  and  end  a  short  but  happy  and  victorious  life 


"MARY   HAD  FIVE   LITTLE   LAMBS." 

at  the  market.  Stock  lambs  need  abundant  food 
but  no  forcing.  Their  ration* aside  from  their  moth- 
ers' milk  should  be  of  oats  and  bran,  with  a  trifle 
of  oilmeal,  clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  and  in  their 
ground  feed  there  may  be  added  a  little  fine  ground 
bonemeal.  Bonemeal  is  made  especially  for  animal 
feeding,  clean  and  pure.  There  is  small  danger  of 


142  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

overfeeding  these  stock  lambs  in  their  infancy ;  they 
will  the  earlier  go  afield  and  learn  there  to  seek  their 
subsistence  in  the  form  of  grass  and  herbage.  Corn 
should  not  be  fed  to  them,  neither  to  the  ewe  lambs 
nor  the  ram  lambs,  for  corn  mainly  makes  fat  and 
fat  impedes  vital  functions  rather  than  helps.  The 
ram  lambs  developed  on  corn  are  slow,  sluggish, 
early  losing  their  usefulness ;  the  ewes  developed  on 
corn  are  uncertain  breeders  and  often  poor  milkers. 
To  develop  bone  and  muscle  and  stamina  in  these 
stock  lambs  should  be  the  aim  and  this  is  accom- 
plished by  feeding  food  rich  in  bone  and  muscle- 
making  materials,  of  which  wheat  bran  is  easily 
among  the  first  and  oats  comes  next.  They  should 
have  abundant  chance  of  exercise  too,  which  may  be 
denied  somewhat  to  the  lambs  that  are  to  go  fat  to 
an  early  market.  Then  there  should  be  constant 
watchfulness  to  avoid  infection  from  parasites  and 
if  this  is  done  the  shepherd  will  have  splendid 
growthy  stock  lambs. 

FEEDING   FOB   THE    MARKET. 

Supposing  now  the  lamb  crop  is  mostly  to  go  fat 
to  market  as  soon  as  ripe.  We  will  assume  that 
they  have  been  born  in  winter,  which  is  the  proper 
season  for  all  lambs  to  be  born  on  farms,  unless  one 
can  get  them  in  the  fall,  and  that  they  have  comfort- 
able quarters  and  their  mothers  have  been  so  well 
fed  that  they  have  an  abundance  of  milk  for  them. 
Next  there  must  be  provided  a  small  room  or  pen 
in  which  the  lambs  can  go  and  the  ewes  can  not. 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  143 

This  place  must  be  of  very  convenient  access,  so 
that  it  is  really  easier  for  the  lamb  to  go  in  than  to 
remain  outside.  This  is  because  lambs  have  fleet- 
ing memories  and  are  largely  the  creatures  of  op- 
portunity. They  will  consume  much  more  feed  when 
it  is  right  at  their  mouths  than  if  they  have  to  go 
even  a  few  rods  to  seek  it.  This  place,  which  we 


AN    ENGLISH      CREEP. 


call  a  creep,  must  be  in  a  light  part  of  the  barn, 
and  if  the  sun  can  shine  in  all  the  better,  for  lambs 
are  attracted  by  sunlight  and  greatly  benefited  by 
it.  In  truth  some  of  the  most  successful  lamb  grow- 
ers have  glass-roofed  sheds  for  their  use  in  winter 
and  achieve  thereby  remarkable  results. 

This  creep  need  not  be  very  large.    If  it  is  12  feet 


144  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

square  it  will  accommodate  50  lambs  very  nicely,  as 
they  will  not  all  be  in  it  at  one  time.  It  should  be 
separated  from  the  ewes'  part  of  the  barn  by  a 
fence  of  vertical  slats,  spaced  about  8  inches  apart, 
the  slats  with  rounded  edges.  This  will  permit  the 
lambs  to  pass  in  and  restrain  the  ewes.  After  a 
time  the  lambs  will  need  some  wider  openings  and 
then  if  small  rollers  are  put  in  to  permit  them  to 
squeeze  between  all  the  better. 

In  the  creep  there  must  be  some  flat-bottomed 
troughs  in  which  to  feed  grain  and  a  hay  rack  for 
alfalfa  hay,  or  clover  if  that  is  the  best  at  hand.  The 
troughs  must  be  low  to  permit  young  lambs  readily 
to  reach  them.  As  lambs  delight  to  get  their  feet 
into  troughs  they  must  be  covered.  To  accomplish 
this  let  the  end  of  the  trough  be  a  solid  board  12 
inches  wide  and  extending  up  12  inches  above  the 
sides  of  the  trough,  pointed  at  the  end  like  the  gable 
of  a  house  roof,  and  put  on  this  two  boards  like  an 
inverted  V.  This  makes  a  steep  roof  to  the  trough 
and  effectually  prevents  the  lambs  getting  their  feet 
into  it. 

This  cover  is  readily  lifted  off  when  grain  is  put 
in.  Attention  to  such  small  details  as  keeping 
troughs  clean  is  essential  to  success  in  feeding  lambs. 
Their  sense  of  smell  is  acute  and  they  discriminate 
sharply  against  anything  but  clean,  fresh  food. 

The  first  feed  to  put  into  the  trough  may  be  wheat 
bran.  Scatter  a  trifle  in  the  bottom  and  sprinkle  it 
with  brown  sugar.  If  the  lambs  do  not  find  it  read- 
ily, take  one  up  gently,  not  to  frighten  him,  and 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB 


145 


146  SHEEP   FARMING   IN    AMERICA 

carrying  him  to  the  trough  put  a  little  of  the  sweet- 
ened bran  in  his  mouth.  He  will  get  the  taste  and  in 
many  cases  you  can  carefully  put  him  on  his  feet 
with  his  head  in  the  trough  leaving  him  there.  Once 
he  gets  a  taste  he  will  return  and  bring  others  with 
him. 

It  is  essential  that  the  bran  used  be  fresh.  Add 
cracked  corn  to  the  bran;  it  also  must  be  fresh  and 
made  of  good,  sound  corn.  It  need  not  be  cracked 
very  fine.  Better  mix  in  a  box  or  bin  about  50 
pounds  of  cracked  corn,  50  pounds  of  wheat  bran 
and  10  pounds  of  oilmeal,  coarse  ground.  If  oats  are 
available  they  may  be  added  to  this  ration,  ground 
at  first,  without  changing  the  proportions  of  other 
things,  for  oats  themselves  form  nearly  a  balanced 
ration. 

Feed  this  twice  or  three  times  a  day,  placing  in 
the  troughs  about  what  will  be  consumed  and  when 
next  feeding  time  comes  sweep  out  and  give  to  the 
ewes  what  may  be  left  so  as  to  always  have  fresh 
feed  before  the  lambs.  Never  wait  for  them  to  lick 
out  the  last  particle  before  offering  them  fresh  food. 

You  will  soon  be  astonished  at  the  amount  the 
little  fellows  will  consume  and  at  the  transforma- 
tion in  their  appearance.  The  plump  roundness  of 
the  baby  forms  is  very  beautiful  and  to  watch  them 
grow  is  a  satisfaction  and  joy  every  day. 

Of  course  there  are  other  things  that  may  be  fed. 
Wheat  middlings  may  make  a  small  part  of  the  ra- 
tion; it  is  too  floury  for  best  results,  as  the  lambs 
do  not  like  it  so  well.  Eye  will  serve  a  useful  pur- 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  147 


pose,  though  it  seems  less  palatable  than  oats  or  bar- 
ley. Soybeans  may  replace  the  oilmeal  and  are  bet- 
ter. Soys  are  readily  grown  upon  any  farm  and 
should  be  regularly  sown  where  lambs  are  grown. 

In  the  northern  states  early  varieties  of  soybeans 
should  be  grown,  threshed  when  ripe  and  the  seeds 
kept  for  the  lambs.  The  bean  straw  also  if  kept  dry 
has  in  it  a  good  deal  of  nourishment  which  the  ewes 
will  seek  out  and  the  coarser  parts  will  serve  as  an 
excellent  bedding. 

There  is  hardly  any  other  food  that  will  push  for- 
ward lambs  like  soys.  They  have  abundant  protein 
and  a  good  deal  of  bone  material  also.  As  compared 
with  ordinary  field  peas  they  have  29  to  40  per  cent 
of  protein,  while  field  peas  have  16  per  cent  and 
cowpeas  18  per  cent.  Field  peas  are  best  adapted  to 
New  England,  Canada  and  Michigan,  with  some  re- 
gions of  high  altitude  in  the  Eocky  Mountains ;  soy- 
beans to  all  the  cornbelt.  As  the  oilmeals  are  stead- 
ily increasing  in  price  with  possibilities  of  their  fre- 
quent adulteration  the  shepherd  cannot  afford  to 
overlook  sources  of  home-grown  protein. 

In  the  southern  states  the  hairy  vetch  is  a  source 
of  home-grown  protein  not  to  be  overlooked.  Further 
reference  to  this  will  be  made  when  we  take  up  the 
subject  of  field  crops  for  sheep. 

The  lamb  will  drink  a  good  deal  of  pure  water, 
even  while  sucking  his  mother.  It  should  be  readily 
available  and  always  clean  enough  for  human  con- 
sumption. 

After  tin  lambs  are  well  started  on  feed,  the  ewe 


148  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

lambs  if  they  are  designed  to  be  kept  upon  the  farm, 
and  such  ram  lambs  as  may  be  worth  keeping, 
should  be  separated  from  the  others  and  fed  differ- 
ently. They  may  have  all  the  oats  and  bran  they 
wish  and  some  soybeans,  but  are  the  better  for  hav- 
ing very  little  corn.  It  is  best  if  they  have  the  run 
with  their  mothers  of  a  field  and  learn  early  to  seek 
part  of  their  food  outside,  whereas  the  ones  destined 
for  market  will  grow  as  well  and  fatten  quicker  to 
have  their  range  much  restricted. 

The  shepherd  should  keep  close  watch  on  the  ewes, 
for  there  will  come  a  time  when  they  are  no  longer 
milking  freely  and  then  they  will  put  their  food  on 
their  backs.  Bather  than  fatten  them  to  their  harm, 
unless  they  are  to  go  to  market,  the  grain  should  be 
gradually  cut  down  and  it  will  be  found  that  the 
lambs  at  this  time  will  take  more  each  day. 

When  the  fattening  lambs  are  a  few  weeks  old 
they  love  to  shell  off  corn  from  the  ear  and  crack  it 
with  their  own  teeth.  They  should  have  opportunity 
to  do  this. 

In  fact,  when  they  are  six  weeks  old  it  is  hardly 
worth  while  to  shell  or  grind  any  more  corn  for 
them.  They  prefer  it  fresh  shelled  by  their  own 
teeth.  It  is  folly  to  spend  time  in  doing  things  that 
the  lambs  delight  in  doing  for  themselves. 

DRESSING  LAMBS  FOR  FANCY  WINTER  MARKET. 

When  the  lambs  reach  a  weight  of  50  to  60  pounds 
or  even  less  if  they  are  very  fat  the  fancy  New  York 
market  will  pay  for  them  from  $3  to  $1.2  each  if  sent 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  149 

there  by  express  nicely  dressed  and  cooled.  The 
prices  depend  upon  how  fat  they  are  and  what  the 
season  is.  Big  lambs,  only  moderately  fat,  sell  much 
cheaper  than  small  lambs  that  are  very  fat. 

For  this  trade  the  lambs  are  dressed  in  a  special 
manner  as  the  market  requires.  Mr.  H.  P.  Miller, 
a  successful  "hothouse"  lamb  grower,  gives  this 
as  his  method:  "It  is  very  important  to  have  them 
thoroughly  bled  out.  To  secure  this  I  have  found  it 
in  killing  advantageous  to  hang  the  lamb  by  the 
hind  feet.  Suspend  a  small  singletree  about  six  feet 


* 


mMii^fii 


ItEADY    FOR    MARKET. 


from  the  ground.  Loop  a  small  rope  or  strong  twine 
about  each  hind  leg  and  attach  to  the  hooks  of  the 
singletree.  With  a  sharp-pointed  knife  sever  the 
artery  and  vein  in  the  neck  close  to  the  head.  Be 
sure  to  sever  the  artery.  Bright  red  blood  is  the 
assurance.  The  veinous  blood  is  dark.  Severing  the 
head  with  one  blow  of  a  sharp  broad  axe  would  cause 
no  suffering  and  insure  thorough  bleeding.  I  re- 
move the  head  with  a  knife  as  soon  as  the  lamb 
ceases  struggling.  Clip  the  wool  from  the  brisket 
and  along  a  strip  four  or  five  inches  wide  upwards 
to  the  udder  or  scrotum,  also  from  between  the  hind 


150  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

legs  as  in  tagging  sheep.  Now  open  the  lamb  from 
the  tail  to  the  brisket.  Slit  the  skin  up  the  inside  of 
the  hind-quarter  about  four  inches  and  loosen  it 
from  the  underlying  muscles  for  two  inches  on 
either  side  of  the  openings  for  the  attachment  of 
caul  fat.  This  should  be  removed  from  the  stom- 
achs before  they  are  detached,  and  in  very  cold 
weather  placed  in  warm  water  until  ready  to  be 
used.  Next  remove  the  stomachs  and  intestines.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  season  the  liver,  heart  and 
lungs  may  be  left  in  place  but  when  the  weather  gets 
warm  they  must  be  removed.  Carefully  spread  the 
caul  fat  over  all  the  exposed  flesh.  Good  large  tooth- 
picks will  hold  it  in  place.  Make  small  slits  in  it  over 
the  kidneys  and  pull  them  through.  This  part  of 
the  work  requires  care  and  skill  to  make  the  carcass 
look  attractive. 

"Be  sure  that  all  is  clean  and  pretty.  Hang  in  a 
cool  place  for  12  to  24  hours.  The  carcasses  should 
not  actually  freeze  but  come  close  to  it.  Sew  a  yard 
of  clean  muslin  about  each  lamb  so  as  to  cover  all 
exposed  surface.  Then  line  a  small  crate  with  strong 
paper  and  place  three  lambs  in  it,  tacking  burlap 
over  the  top.  Crate  them  just  before  shipping.  Ice 
may  be  put  between  the  lambs  but  not  in  them.  Pre- 
pare for  market  as  fast  as  ready,  three  or  six  at  a 
time.  Aim  to  slaughter  regularly  each  week,  if  you 
have  lambs  in  condition,  and  keep  your  commission 
firm  informed  as  to  how  many  you  will  send." 

It  is  worth  noting  that  for  a  period  of  years  prices 
for  these  fancy  fat  winter  lambs  have  steadily  ad- 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  151 

vanced  and  the  supply  though  increasing  has  not 
been  equal  to  the  demand;  There  is,  however,  a  wide 
variation  in  prices  obtained  and  if  one  finds  his 
lambs  selling  at  a  low  price  he  had  better  investi- 
gate to  see  what  is  wrong.  It  is  better  to  keep  the 
lambs  to  sell  alive  in  spring  than  dress  them  and  pay 
express  charges  and  commissions  for  $3  to  $4  each 
in  winter.  During  January  and  February,  however, 
good  lambs,  such  as  any  careful  man  can  as  easily 
make  as  any  other  sort,  sell  for  from  $8  to  $15  each 
in  New  York  with  small  prospect  of  oversupply  for 
some  time. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  LATE-BORN  LAMBS. 

Naturally  the  larger  part  of  the  lambs  will  be 
born  too  late  for  the  fancy  trade.  Nor  would  there 
be  demand  for  all  of  them  in  the  form  of  "fancy  hot- 
house lambs. "  There  is,  however,  abundant  profit 
in  fattening  them  to  be  sold  afoot  in  April,  May, 
June  or  July.  Usually  the  highest  prices  are  ob- 
tained in  June.  At  that  time  the  supply  of  fat  lambs 
born  on  the  ranges  the  previous  summer  and  win- 
ter-fed is  about  exhausted  and  the  supply  of  fat 
native  winter  or  spring-born  lambs  has  never  yet 
been  adequate. 

To  develop"  lambs  for  this  live  trade  they  should 
be  fed  just  as  advised  for  the  winter  lambs  except 
that  they  should  be  permitted  to  take  more  exercise 
than  when  they  are  to  be  finished  at  the  earliest  pos- 
sible moment. 

When  grass  comes  the  lambs  should  be  kept  off 


152  SHEEP  FARMING   IN  AMERICA 

of  it  until  it  is  actually  sweet.  The  sun  must  have 
time  to  get  into  it  before  it  will  be  strong  and  good ; 
and  to  eat  it  before  that  time  is  a  damage  alike  to 
the  grass  and  the  lambs.  Furthermore  after  they 
have  a  taste  of  green  grass  they  will  not  eat  dry 
forage  well,  so  there  is  loss  all  around.  Keep  them 
on  dry  feed  therefore  until  there  is  abundant  green 
grass  and  it  is  sweet,  then  you  may  let  them  go  to  it 
without  fear  of  them  shrinking.  One  of  the  com- 
monest mistakes  in  American  stock  farming  is  turn- 
ing onto  pastures  too  early  in  the  spring. 

There  is  little  danger  of  scouring  from  eating 
grass  after  it  has  become  sweet.  The  corn,  of  which 
they  are  now  eating  a  great  deal,  has  a  tendency  to 
prevent  it  and  after  a  day  or  two  they  will  go  on  as 
though  nothing  had  been  changed,  happy  indeed  be- 
yond words  in  the  fresh  spring  sunshine  and  fine 
pasture,  before  flies  have  come  or  summer  heat  to 
oppress. 

Here  is  a  great  argument  for  having  lambs  born 
in  winter,  they  may  thus  get  such  a  vigorous  start 
that  when  green  grass  comes  they  are  able  to  make 
the  most  of  it.  There  are  two  months  in  our  trying 
climate  of  the  cornbelt  that  make  ideal  natural  con- 
ditions for  making  mutton  cheaply;  they  are  May 
and  June,  with  sometimes  a  bit  of  April.  Wherefore 
the  shepherd  should  plan  to  have  his  lambs  big  and 
strong  when  this  time  comes  so  that  they  may  make 
the  most  of  their  opportunities.  There  is  less  profit 
as  a  general  thing  in  carrying  any  over  through  July, 
August  and  September,  save  those  that  are  destined 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB 


153 


154  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA          ] 

to  remain  and  permanently  to  replenish  the  breed- 
ing flock. 

FEEDING  CORN   ON   GRASS. 

While  in  winter  time  on  dry  feed  it  is  essential 
to  feed  bran,  oilmeal  or  soybeans  to  supply  the 
requisite  protein  to  the  growing  lambs,  there  is  not 
so  much  need  of  supplying  protein  when  on  grass, 
that  is,  if  the  lambs  are  destined  for  the  butcher. 
Green  grass  is  more  nitrogenous  than  dry  hay  and 
there  are  -many  clovers  usually  mixed  in  the  grass 
so  that  a  ration  of  corn  (maize)  alone  will  serve  a 
good  purpose.  This  may  as  well  be  fed  in  the  ear, 
laying  it  in  troughs ;  or  if  there  is  a  clean  sward  of 
thick  grass  the  ears  may  simply  be  scattered  about 
upon  it,  in  a  fresh  spot  each  day.  To  do  this  before 
the  lambs  are  weaned  it  is  of  course  necessary  to 
fence  off  a  part  of  the  pasture  away  from  the  ewes, 
allowing  only  the  lambs  to  have  access  to  it.  •  No 
more  corn  should  ever  be  fed  at  a  time  than  they 
will  consume  and  that  they  may  eat  it  regularly  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  every  lamb  is  there  at 
feeding  time.  If  troughs  are  set  close  by,  in  which 
a  few  handfuls  of  oats  are  strewn  for  the  ewes,  the 
shepherd  can  readily  call  the  whole  flock  up  at  feed- 
ing time  and  the  lambs  will  rush  through  their  creeps 
to  get  to  their  corn  while  the  mothers  are  munch- 
ing the  sparing  allowance  doled  out  to  them. 

Gains  on  grass  when  lambs  have  had  a  good  start 
in  winter  are  surprisingly  rapid.  By  the  first  of 
June  the  February  lambs  will  often  weigh  80  pounds, 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  155 

and  drafts  may  be  made  and  sent  away  if  it  is  con- 
venient to  market  in  that  manner,  or  all  may  be 
kept  till  they  average  about  80  pounds,  which  will 
be  early  in  June.  If  carefully  managed  there  will 
be  no  culls  and  all  will  be  gone  and  the  cash  in  the 
owner's  pocket  before  comes  the  dread  parasites. 

Salt  is  essential  to  the  sheep  and  it  is  well  to  ac- 
custom them  to  the  use  of  it  and  keep  it  before  them 
at  all  times.  It  is  especially  useful  in  spring  when 
grass  comes,  and  no  doubt  when  they  have  access  to 
it  checks  many  bowel  troubles. 

SUMMER  SHADE. 

Shade  is  essential  in  our  climate  of  the  cornbelt. 
Even  in  April  sheep  will  begin  to  seek  the  shade 
during  the  warmer  parts  of  the  day  and  by  May  and 
June  it  is  very  necessary.  Where  the  pasture  is  near 
the  barn  the  cool,  dark  lower  story,  where  were  the 
winter  quarters,  is  an  ideal  place  for  the  flock.  It 
should  be  kept  well  bedded  down  and  thus  there  is 
saved  a  good  deal  of  fertility  that  would  otherwise 
perhaps  be  heaped  up  in  fence  corners  or  beneath 
trees  where  it  would  do  the  pasture  little  good.  The 
sheep  prefer  the  darkness  of  the  barn  to  the  semi- 
shadow  of  trees  and  it  is  very  much  better  and  safer 
for  them  for  reasons  that  we  will  presently  take  up 
under  the  subject  of  parasite  infestation. 

In  this  barn  basement  one  should  each  day  put 
down  a  little  fresh  hay  and  usually  the  flock  will 
eat  quite  a  bit  of  it.  In  connection  with  their  green 
forage  it  is  to  them  what  dry  bread  and  butter  are  to 


156  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

the  boy  eating  green  apples  in  summer  time.  It  is 
a  good  practice  even  to  salt  the  sheep  in  summer  by 
sprinkling  brine  over  dry  hay  in  the  barn,  thus  en- 
couraging them  to  eat  as  much  of  it  as  they  will. 
Of  course  there  are  locations  where  hay  is  hard  to 
get  and  pasture  is  in  excess.  There  this  would  not 
be  good  practice,  but  all  through  this  region  of  the 
cornbelt  hay  is  abundant  and  often  more  economical 
to  produce  on  high-priced  land  than  pasture. 

Corn  also  may  be  fed  to  the  lambs  in  the  barn 
basement  if  the  flock  has  access  to  it.  There  is  but 
one  thing  to  fear;  that  the  place  may  be  allowed  to 
become  foul  so  that  fleeces  will  be  soiled  and  feet  en- 
dangered, and  it  is  attention  to  these  little  things 
that  assures  success. 

Shade  in  fields  may  be  had  best  by  movable  sheds. 
These  may  be  made  on  runners,  simple  roofs  about 
16  feet  square  and  not  high,  open  at  the  sides,  made 
of  pine  boards.  They  need  not  be  rain-proof  since 
sun  is  what  we  are  seeking  to  shelter  against.  A 
shed  of  this  size  will  shelter  40  sheep  and  as  it  may 
be  frequently  moved  there  will  be  an  enrichment  of 
a  good  many  spots  during  the  summer.  The  writer 
has  on  the  farm  on  which  he  lives  a  spot  where  his 
father  forty  years  before  had  a  temporary  sheep 
shelter  that  still  produces  crops  remarkable  for  their 
distinguishing  greenness  and  rankness. 

There  are  reasons  why  we  should  not  permit  the 
sheep  to  stand  where  they  will,  along  fences  and  be- 
neath trees.  First  the  manure  is  wasted  there ;  then 
the  shade  is  seldom  really  satisfactory.  Sufficient  in 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB 


157 


the  early  morning  the  sun  has  by  noon  moved  so 
that  it  is  no  longer  comfortable  and  the  silly  flock 
will  suffer  much  before  moving  away.  Worst  of  all 
is  the  danger  to  the  health  of  the  sheep  through 
parasitic  infection.  Lying  much  in  one  place  there 


A    CARLOAD    OF    YEARLING    WETHERS. 

is  an  accumulation  of  droppings  presumably  bear- 
ing germs  of  various  harmful  parasites  such  as 
stomach  worms,  throat  worms,  nodular  disease  and 
the  like.  The  droppings  stimulate  the  growth  of 
sweet,  rich  grasses  here.  The  germs  harbor  on  the 


158  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

roots  and  about  the  base  of  these  grasses.  Lambs 
lying  in  shade  nearby  become  hungry,  and  venturing 
into  the  sun  a  little  way  nibble  at  these  rich  grasses. 
It  is  worth  noting  that  sheep  will  the  more  greedily 
eat  grass  that  grows  strong,  from  manured  land, 
than  that  which  is  thin  and  tough  growing  on  poor 
soil.  The  lambs  then  nibbling  this  thick  grass,  which 
is  thus  kept  short,  take  in  many  germs  of  stomach 
worms  and  other  parasites  which  their  mothers  have 
deposited  there  with  their  manure.  Thus  disease 
creeps  into  the  flock.  In  England  the  writer  has 
seen  shepherds  putting  fences  of  hurdles  about  trees 
to  prevent  ewes  lying  beneath  them  when  on  grass, 
and  explaining  that  they  found  when  the  ewes  laid 
in  the  shade  of  those  trees  "they  took  cold  from  the 
draughts  and  coughed."  The  facts  were  correctly 
observed  but  the  reasoning  was  defective ;  it  was  not 
the  "  draught "  that  made  the  sheep  cough  but  the 
throat  worms  and  lung  worms  instead  that  gained 
entrance  from  the  infected  grass  of  the  tree 's  shade. 

MARKETING  THE  SPRING  LAMB. 

Through  Virginia  and  Kentucky  there  are  many 
sheep  breeders  who  make  a  practice  of  growing  their 
lambs  on  grass  alone,  having  them  born  usually  in 
March  and  putting  them  off  fat  in  June.  They  usu- 
ally contract  them  ahead  for  about  $6  per  cwt.  They 
find  this  business  very  profitable  and  thus  their 
rough  lands  devoted  to  sheep  pastures  steadily  im- 
prove rather  than  deteriorate. 

It  is  a  temptation  to  the  young  shepherd  to  keep 


CARE  OF  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  159 

the  lambs  over  till  fall  or  perhaps  to  feed  them  again 
the  following  winter.  ,  This  seldom  pays  so  well  as  to 
have  them  fat  early  and  get  rid  of  them  at  a  good 
price.  When  they  come  to  market  as  late  as  Au- 
gust and  from  then  to  Christmas  they  must  compete 
with  lambs  grown  on  the  ranges  under  much  more 
favorable  conditions  for  cheap  production.  More- 
over, the  lambs  during  the  hot  summers  of  the  corn- 
belt  do  not  gain  much  fat ;  if  in  fact  they  hold  what 
they  made  in  May  and  June  they  do  well  and  there 
is  besides  that  terrible  danger — the  parasite. 

DOCKIXG. 

Unless  one  is  certain  that  his  lambs  will  go  early 
to  market,  say  at  an  age  not  exceeding  three  months, 
he  had  better  dock  and  castrate  them.  Tails  are  un- 
necessary appendages  to  a  modern  sheep  and  are  apt 
to  become  fouled.  A  docked  lamb  has  a  squarer 
look  and  seems  fatter  than  one  with  a  tail.  What 
blood  goes  to  nourish  the  useless  tail  would  add  to 
the  growth  of  the  rest  of  the  body  no  doubt.  Dock- 
ing may  be  done  at  a  very  early  age,  within  ten  days 
after  birth  if  the  lamb  is  strong,  and  .there  is  then 
slight  shock.  Tails  may  be  severed  with  one  stroke 
of  a  sharp  knife  (cutting  from  the  under  side),  or 
by  use  of  a. mallet  and  chisel,  but  a  better  and  safer 
way  when  pure-bred  and  well-fed  lambs  are  docked 
is  by  use  of  hot  docking  pinchers.  These  are  readily 
made  by  the  country  blacksmith.  They  are  shaped 
like  large  shoeing  pinchers,  only  much  heavier  and 
with  a  wider  opening  to  admit  any  tail,  for  some- 


160  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

times  one  will  wish  to  dock  a  mature  sheep  or  cut 
off  a  scrotum  from  an  old  ram.  They  should  be  thin 
at  the  edge  but  not  very  sharp,  and  thick  back  of  it 
to  hold  the  heat.  The  manner  of  operation  is  to 
have  a  board  with  a  hole  bored  through  it  of  a 
proper  size  to  admit  the  tail  of  the  lamb.  This  board 
protects  the  adjacent  parts  against  the  heat  of  the 
pinchers.  They  are  heated  to  redness  and  quickly 
sever  the  tail  which  will  not  bleed  a  drop.  Some 
disinfectant  is  then  applied  and  the  lamb  let  go. 
After  flies  come  one  must  watch  that  the  stumps  do 
not  become  infested  with  maggots ;  there  is  no  other 
danger.  Pure-bred  and  well-fed  lambs  will  some- 
times bleed  to  death  when  their  tails  are  cut  with 
knife  or  chisel.  When  no  docking  pinchers  are  at 
hand  the  stumps  may  be  corded  for  a  few  hours. 

CASTRATION  OF   OLD  RAMS. 

These  docking  pinchers  are  convenient  things  to 
have  for  castration  of  old  rams,  or  of  any  sheep 
past  the  age  of  lambhood.  The  method  is  to  lay  the 
ram  on  his  back;  one  man  seizes  the  scrotum  and 
testicles  and  pulls  them  out  from  the  body  and  an- 
other simply  severs  them  all  together  with  the  dock- 
ing pinchers  used  very  hot.  Protect  the  belly  against 
the  heat  by  using  a  board  with  slit  in  it. 

There  is  no  bleeding,  though  the  operation  should 
not  be  too  hastily  performed,  as  there  is  need  of  a 
moment's  contact  with  the  hot  iron  to  sear  the  arte- 
ries. The  application  of  disinfectants  completes  the 
operation.  A  thin  board  may  keep  the  heat  from 


CARE  OP  THE  EWE  AND  YOUNG  LAMB  161 

scorching  the  body.  The  writer  has  thus  operated 
on  a  six-year-old  ram  and  had  him  get  up  and  go  to 
eating  hay  quite  unconcerned.  It  is  probable  that 
the  hot  iron  destroys  the  sensibility  to  pain  to  quite 
an  extent. 

CASTRATION  OF  LAMBS. 

Castration  of  young  lambs  is  a  very  simple 
process.  The  lambs  should  be  two  weeks  old  and 
strong.  The  end  of  the  scrotum  is  cut  off,  the  tes- 
ticles made  to  emerge  and  are  then  pulled  out  with 
the  adhering  cords.  Some  shepherds  practice  seiz- 
ing them  with  their  teeth ;  this  is  a  common  practice 
on  many  western  ranches.  It  is  not  usually  neces- 
sary to  apply  anything  in  case  of  these  young  lambs, 
but  a  mixture  of  lard  and  turpentine,  or  tallow  and 
turpentine,  combined  in  proportion  so  as  to  be  soft 
will  deter  germs  and  make  healing  more  rapid. 
There  should  not  be  a  loss  from  docking  and  castra- 
tion of  more  than  one  lamb  in  500,  and  it  is  satis- 
faction to  have  both  done  so  that  whatever  age  the 
lambs  may  reach  they  will  not  in  marketing  suffer 
a  "dock"  because  of  their  "bucky"  condition. 

WEANING. 

As  a  rule  it  is  not  necessary  to  wean  lambs  before 
they  go  to  market.  If  they  are  fed  right  they  will 
while  sucking  their  mothers  reach  a  weight  of  75  to 
85  pounds  if  of  mutton  breeds.  There  is  nothing 
better  than  mothers'  milk  except  more  mothers' 
milk !  Lambs  that  are  to  remain  on  the  farm,  how- 
ever, should  be  separated  from  the  ewes  when  ten 


162  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

or  twelve  weeks  old,  or  when  the  advent  of  warm 
weather  makes  parasitic  infection  a  danger.  An  ex- 
ception may  be  made  of  the  ewe  lambs,  which  may 
in  some  cases  run  with  their  mothers  until  they  are 
weaned  naturally.  The  advantage  of  weaning  is  that 
it  makes  possible  the  separation  of  the  young  and 
old  and  thus  the  young  things  are  put  by  themselves 
on  clean  pasture  where  there  can  be  no  contaminated 
grass  and  thus  they  escape  infection  and  parasitic 
diseases.  The  proper  way  to  wean  lambs  is  by  tak- 
ing away  the  ewes,  leaving  the  lambs  in  the  pasture 
where  they  are  accustomed  to  run.  Build  in  the  pas- 
ture a  small  yard  or  corral  having  creeps  through 
which  the  lambs  can  run ;  the  ewes,  after  being  away 
from  the  lambs  for  12  hours,  are  returned  and  yard- 
ed there  when  the  lambs  will  run  in  and  milk  them 
out,  and  when  they  have  again  gone  out  to  feed  the 
ewes  may  be  taken  away  for  another  period.  Thus 
there  is  a  gradual  separation,  neither  ewes  nor  lambs 
experiencing  a  shock,  and  if  the  ewes  are  put  on 
rather  sparse  picking  they  will  soon  be  dry.  There 
is  but  one  danger,  viz. :  there  may  be  some  ewes  yet 
milking  so  heavily  that  their  lambs  will  suffer  from 
gorging  upon  their  return.  The  watchful  shepherd 
will  be  aware  of  such  a  case  and  catching  them  will 
milk  out  somewhat  before  letting  the  lambs  at  them, 
or  if  it  be  a  late-born  lamb  allowing  it  to  run  yet  a 
little  longer. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
SUMMER  CAEE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

THE   EWE    FLOCK. 

In  winter  the  shepherd  is  a  god  to  his  flock.  Shut 
away  from  natural  sources  of  food  supply  the  sheep 
depend  entirely  upon  his  providence  and  therefore 
their  thrift  rests  entirely  upon  his  knowledge  and 
willingness  to  give.  In  summer  Nature  provides  for- 
age in  abundance,  and  turned  out  in  the  fields  the 
sheep  can  choose  as  their  instincts  prompt  them. 
They  should  then  thrive  upon  pasture  as  nowhere 
else.  They  would  were  it  not  for  two  things  : 
one  that  the  shepherd  too  often  considers  a 
"pasture"  as  being  an  enclosure  surrounded  by  a 
good  fence,  regardless  of  what  the  forage  may  be 
within ;  the  other  that  in  summer  time  come  pests  of 
flies,  maggots,  worms  and  internal  parasites.  The 
shepherd  who  thoroughly  learns  the  lesson  of  pre- 
vention of  these  pests  will  find  his  work  a  joy  and 
will  stay  with  it  and  make  a  large  profit  from  his 
flock.  The  man  who  simply  turns  the  flock  to  pasture 
and  gives  it  no  more  attention  or  thought  will  very 
likely  find  himself  confronted  with  a  lot  of  diseased 
and  unprofitable  sheep  within  a  few  years  and  his 
farm  perhaps  so  infected  with  germs  of  parasites 

(163) 


164  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

that  there  is  no  longer  any  profit  in  keeping  sheep 
there. 

Most  of  the  trouble  comes  from  the  internal  para- 
sites, and  while  there  is  a  long  list  of  them  that  afflict 
sheep  nearly  all  the  trouble  in  our  country  comes 
from  two  or  three  species.  By  far  the  most  preva- 
lent and  troublesome  is  the  twisted  stomach  worm 
(Haemonchus  contortus).  This  inhabits  the  fourth 
stomach  of  the  ewe  and  she  carries  it  through  the 
winter  even  though  she  may  seem  to  be  in  good 
health.  In  spring  and  during  summer  the  worms 
become  filled  with  eggs,  " ripen"  and  pass  away. 
Just  how  the  young  germs  then  re-enter  the  sheep 
or  find  a  home  in  the  more  tender  stomach  of  the 
young  lambs  no  one  knows.  They  probably  hatch 
in  shallow  pools  of  stagnant  water  (infections  in 
Texas  and  New  Mexico  are  thought  to  be  by  this 
means)  or  they  attach  themselves  to  the  moist  grass 
close  to  the  ground  and  are  taken  in  from  that  posi- 
tion. It  is  noticed  that  old  and  rich  sheep  pastures 
covered  with  short,  sweet  grass  are  frequently  the 
most  fatal  to  young  lambs  even  when  there  is  no 
stagnant  water  in  them. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  stomach  worm 
has  done  more  to  discourage  sheep  husbandry  in 
the  cornbelt  of  America  than  all  other  causes  put  to- 
gether and  many  a  man  has  gone  out  of  business 
from  the  depredations  of  this  little  enemy  who  did 
not  even  know  that  such  a  pest  existed. 

The  symptoms  of  infection  from  stomach  worms 
are,  first :  the  wool  appears  lusterless  and  if  pressed 


SUMMER  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 


165 


166  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

with  the  hand  does  not  spring  out  again  as  when  the 
animal  is  in  vigorous  health.  Looking  more  closely, 
the  red  in  the  veins  in  and  about  the  eye  seems  pale 
and  when  you  part  the  wool  the  skin  has  lost  its 
pinkness,  and  if  the  disease  has  progressed  far  it 
looks  white  and  chalky.  There  is  a  disordered  diges- 
tion and  perhaps  a  depraved  appetite;  the  animal 
may  gnaw  earth,  rotten  wood  or  bark ;  there  may  be 
diarrhea  or  constipation.  Before  death  comes  there 
will  probably  be  "blackscours."  Old  sheep  seldom 
die  from  stomach  worms  but  are  run  down  in  vitality 
by  the  pest,  while  lambs  may  die  in  great  numbers. 

Stomach  worms  seldom  ever  trouble  sheep  in  cool 
regions  and  there  is  some  evidence  that  a  tempera- 
ture of  50  degrees  in  the  soil  prevents  their  develop- 
ment. Therefore  they  do  not  spread  through  a  flock 
until  warm  weather,  which  may  come  in  May  and 
certainly  comes  in  June.  Up  to  that  time  the  lambs 
are  comparatively  safe  to  run  with  the  mothers; 
after  that  the  idea  of  the  twisted  stomach  worm 
must  be  kept  ever  in  mind. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  there  are  considerable  regions  in  America 
where  fear  of  the  stomach  worm  is  not  felt.  In 
Massachusetts,  Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont 
there  is  little  or  no  evidence  of  Haemonchus  infesta- 
tion. Northern  New  York  and  the  mountain  regions 
of  that  section  should  be  almost  exempt  from  danger 
if  flocks  are  properly  managed.  Ontario,  in  Canada, 
seems  nearly  without  the  -dread  pest.  The  writer 
has  seen  wonderful  flocks  in  Vermont  and  Ontario 


SUMMER   CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  167 

managed  very  simply  on  thick,  sweet  bluegrass  and 
white  clover  pastures  and  without  a  trace  of  this 
malady.  The  road-side  sheep  of  Ontario  graze 
perennially  on  the  same  restricted  areas  and  escape 
infection.  So  in  northern  Michigan,  in  the  Upper 
Peninsula  especially,  is  a  grand  field  for  easy  and 
almost  care-free  shepherding.  Northern  Minnesota 


COTSWOLD    EWES. 


and  Wisconsin  should  prove  little  subject  to  this 
pest. 

One  evidence  that  cool  climates  deter  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Haemonchus  contortus  is  seen  in  north- 
ern England  and  in  Scotland.  On  the  Cheviot  hills 
flocks  grow  as  thick  as  the  grass  will  bear  and  for 
many  centuries  this  has  been  so.  In  Scotland  the 
same  is  true  and  the  writer  in  a  rather  careful  study 
of  conditions  there  saw  no  evidences  whatever  of 


168  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

infestation  of  this  pest.  There  is  some  parasitism 
in  that  region  but  it  is  more  likely  to  be  of  tape- 
worms or  the  brain  parasite  that  causes  "gid"  or 
' '  staggers. " 

It  is  a  matter  of  wonder  to  the  writer  that  more 
men  do  not  in  New  England  and  our  other  northern 
border  states  turn  their  attention  to  sheep  growing 
on  a  scale  large  enough  to  make  it  a  business.  There 
should  be  whole  regions  given  up  to  the  breeding  of 
sheep,  and  such  breeds  as  the  Cheviot,  Lincoln  or 
Cotswold  would  there  find  a  congenial  home,  while 
Shropshires  and  Southdowns  would  thrive  well  and 
furnish  the  market  with  prime  mutton.  Shepherd- 
ing without  the  fear  of  stomach  worm  infestation  is 
a  delightful  occupation. 

The  simplest  method  of  keeping  the  lambs  in 
health  in  the  summer  time  is  to  separate  them  from 
the  ewes  and  put  them  on  grazing  that  has  had  no 
sheep  on  it- for  a  year,  or  at  least  that  has  had  no 
sheep  since  the  previous  fall.  We  will  take  up  the 
care  of  the  lambs  a  little  later. 

The  ewe  flock  is  easily  kept  in  health.  Mature 
sheep  are  resistant  to  parasites  unless  they  are  de- 
pleted in  vitality  by  reason  of  being  bred  too  young, 
or  by  suckling  their  lambs  when  poorly  nourished. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  give  them  sound  grass  and  as 
good  a  variety  of  herbage  as  is  at  hand  and  to 
change  them  from  one  pasture  to  another  about  once 
in  ten  days  or  a  fortnight.  The  old  adage,  "change 
of  pasture  makes  fat  sheep"  is  true  and  it  depends 
upon  two  reasons :  change  gives  chance  for  fresh 


SUMMER   CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  169 

herbage  to  spring  up  and  it  gives  parasitic  germs 
chance  to  die  before  finding  again  a  living  place  in 
the  body  of  its  former  host.  It  is  better  then  to 
divide  large  sheep  pastures  into  several  divisions, 
and  during  warm  weather,  say  about  the  middle  of 
May  till  the  middle  of  September,  to  change  the  flock 
from  one  division  to  another,  letting  cattle  or  horses 
follow  them,  or  letting  the  pastures  have  rest  till 
the  flock  comes  back  again. 

It  would  not  help  matters  any  to  keep  sheep  in 
each  division  and  change  by  transposition,  a  com- 
mon and  sinful  practice,  as  one  lot  would  readily  in- 
fect the  other.  It  is  not  good  management  therefore 
fully  to  stock  a  pasture  with  sheep  in  any  part  of 
the  United  States  east  of  a  line  running  about  with 
the  100th  meridian,  or  roughly  along  the  western 
limit  of  the  cornbelt.  The  exception  to  this  rule 
would  be  in  the  case  of  high  mountain  pastures  or 
in  the  far  north,  where  the  air  and  soil  are  cool 
enough  to  deter  the  spread  of  parasites. 

These  stomach  worms  are  not  very  hard  to  de- 
stroy or  drive  out  of  the  body  of  the  sheep.  .The 
writer  introduced  the  gasoline  treatment  into  the 
United  States  and  it  has  given  excellent  results  in 
his  practice.  Coaltar  creosote  is  said  to  be  as  good 
and  perhaps  better.  Some  coaltar  dips  are  used 
successfully  in  destroying  the  stomach  worm.  We 
will  give  explicit  directions  for  administering  these 
remedies  further  on.  It  is  enough  here  to  empha- 
size the  absolute  necessity  for  treatment  of  this  kind. 
The  man  who  blindly  ignores  the  reality  of  this  dan- 


170  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

ger  or  carelessly  neglects  to  adopt  measures  to  ward 
it  off,  should  blame  only  himself  when  loss  comes. 

A  SYSTEM  OF  MANAGEMENT  THAT  INSURES  A 
HEALTHY  FLOCK. 

Two  men  in  America  fought  stomach  worms  all 
through  the  disastrous  years  of  the  90  's,  when  little 
was  known  to  help ;  they  found  light,  they  conquered 
the  pests  in  a  measure,  and  kept  on  keeping  sheep 
and  studying  flock  management.  Finally  each  made 
a  journey  to  England  and  studied  the  conditions 
there  with  a  view  to  solving  the  problem  for  Amer- 
ica. There  they  found  hurdling  the  best  answer  to 
the  question.  Independently  of  each  other  they 
reached  the  same  conclusions  as  to  the  practical 
solution  of  the  question  in  America.  Dr.  H.  B.  Ar- 
buckle  of  West  Virginia  and  the  writer  were  the 
two  men.  But  they  wish  to  give  all  due  credit  to 
the  Department  of  Zoology  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  at  Washington  for  at  last  giving  accurate 
details  of  the  life  history  of  the  Haemonchus  con- 
tortus  (formerly  called  Strongylus  contortus)  for 
without  the  details  that  we  now  have  no  certain  plan 
could  have  been  formulated. 

The  basis  of  this  plan  is  the  fact  that  lambs  are 
born  free  from  parasitic  infection ;  they  are  healthy. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  keep  them  healthy  by  pre- 
venting infection.  Their  mothers  carry  over  in  their 
bodies  the  germs  that  will  infect  them  in  the  form 
of  mature  stomach  worms,  which  when  ripe  pass 
away  to  the  droppings  and  thus  infect  the  pasture. 


SUMMER   CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  171 

When  the  temperature  is  below  40°  the  eggs  will 
not  hatch.  When  it  is  above  that  they  will  hatch  out 
in  a  few -hours  or  in  a  week  or  so,  depending  upon 
how  warm  it  is.  Freezing  or  drying  soon  kills  the 
unhatched  eggs.  So  it  is  seen  that  ewes  will  not 
pollute  a  field  in  winter,  their  droppings  are  sure 
to  be  soon  frozen,  at  least  in  the  region  where  sheep 
are  mostly  kept.  But  if  the  tiny  worm  hatches  from 
the  egg  it  feeds  for  a  time  upon  the  material  of  the 
manure  and  continues  to  grow  till  it  is  about  one- 
thirtieth  of  an  inch  long.  Then  it  creeps  up  on  a 
blade  of  grass  and  waits  to  be  swallowed  by  some 
lamb,  after  which  it  finishes  its  growth  within  the 
fourth  stomach  of  the  lamb,  and,  incidentally,  fin- 
ishes the  lamb  as  well. 

Under  the  heading  of  " Diseases  of  Sheep"  will 
be  found  entire  the  very  interesting  bulletin  of  Dr. 
B.  H.  Ransom  on  this  subject. 

Now  how  to  manage  a  flock  with  safety  and  profit 
on  natural  grass :  To  begin  with,  the  ewe  flock 
should  be  treated  for  stomach  worms.  This  is  best 
done  in  the  fall,  when  they  come  from  pasture.  It 
may  be  again  done  in  the  spring  before  their  lambs 
come.  Eemedies  for  treatment  will  be  found  under 
the  heading  "Diseases  of  Sheep."  The  writer  is  of 
the  opinion  that  use  of  some  of  the  coaltar  dips,  in 
small  doses,  much  diluted,  will  eventually  be  recog- 
nized as  most  efficient.  This  treatment  alone  has 
double'd  the  weight  of  lambs  in  some  experiments 
in  Kentucky.  Next,  the  flock  should  at  the  approach 
of  spring  weather  be  confined  to  the  yard  and  shed. 


172  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

There  are  two  reasons  for  this:  the  one  that  it  is 
better  for  the  grass,  and  thus  in  the  long  run  better 
for  the  flock,  and  the  other  that  there  is  thus  no  con- 
tamination of  land  over  which  the  lambs  will  later 
feed.  If  it  were  possible  to  wholly  eradicate  the 
worms  from  the  ewes  by  treatment  this  care  would 
not  be  needed,  but  unfortunately  it  seems  almost  im- 
possible with  our  present  knowledge  to  kill  all  of 
the  worms  by  any  medication.  Probably  while  con- 
fined to  the  yard  the  lambs  will  be  born.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  flock  be  well  fed  at  this  time  so  that 
the  ewes  be  full  of  milk.  If  desired  there  may  be 
provided  a  run  to  a  rye  field,  or  to  some  grass  pas- 
ture that  will  not  be  afterwards  used  that  summer, 
to  help  stimulate  the  milk  flow.  By  May  15  probably 
the  grass  will  be  so  forward  that  the  flock  may  be 
turned  out  for  good.  Now  begins  the  new  manage- 
ment. Instead  of  turning  the  flock  to  a  large  pas- 
ture to  roam  over  it  at  will  turn  them  on  a  very 
small  part  of  it.  How  best  to  manage  this  will  de- 
pend upon  circumstances.  The  writer  thinks  that 
in  our  land  of  small  supply  of  labor  and  much  hurry 
and  turmoil  during  the  summer  season  it  is  safest 
to  divide  the  pastures  by  permanent  wire  fences. 
These  are  not  costly  and  need  not  be  very  higH.  We 
will,  then,  turn  the  whole  flock  together  into  the 
first  division;  none  shall  be  scattered  about.  Of 
course  there  may  be  two  flocks,  one  with  lambs  and 
a  dry  flock,  but  the  dry  flock  had  better  be  put  apart 
somewhere  or  else  put  with  the  ewes.  It  will  not 
do  to  let  anything  interfere  with  the  regular  rota- 


SUMMER   CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  173 


STUDIES    IN   SHEEP   CHARACTER. 


174  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

tion  of  these  pastures.  Now  once  in  this  pasture 
the  flock  will  be  allowed  to  eat  it  down  close  to  the 
ground.  That  will  not  hurt  the  grass,  for  all  will 
go  on  in  a  short  time  and  the  grass  may  spring  up 
again.  This  is  how  pastures  are  often  managed  in 
England  by  hurdles. 

Doctor  Eansom  says  that  sheep  may  probably  be 
safely  left  on  May  pasture  for  two  weeks.  We  will 
shorten  this  time  to  10  days,  to  make  sure.  That  is, 
the  germs  falling  to  the  earth  could  not  before  10 
days  find  their  way  back  into  any  sheep  or  lamb, 
and  we  are  going  to  move  the  flock  on  before  they 
are  able  to  get  in. 

Now  in  the  division  between  this  pasture  and  the 
next  we  will  place  creeps  so  fixed  that  the  lambs  can 
readily  pass  through  to  the  next  enclosure.  This 
they  will  early  learn  to  do,  and  so  they  will  be  eat- 
ing the  fresher  parts  of  the  herbage  in  advance  of 
the  ewes. 

In  ten  days  then  the  whole  flock  will  go  forward 
one  pasture,  the  lambs  yet  having  access  to  the 
fresher  feeding  on  ahead.  Doctor  Ransom  says  we 
will  need  for  this  sure  treatment  the  following  divi- 
sions : 

For  May,  2  pastures. 

For  June,  4  pastures. 

For  July,  4  pastures. 

For  August,  4  pastures. 

For  September,  3  pastures. 

For  October,  2  pastures. 

That  makes  19  enclosures  in  all  and  insures  that 


SUMMER   CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  175 

the  flock  shall  be  kept  in  absolute  freedom  from  in- 
fection throughout  the  year. 

However,  one  will  not  absolutely  need  so  many 
enclosures  as  that.  By  June  many  of  the  lambs  will 
be  ripe,  by  July  many  of  the  others,  and  even  when 
the  lambs  are  born  late  when  managed  in  this  way 
they  should  all  be  ripe  as  peaches  by  the  middle  of 
August.  After  the  lambs  are  gone  the  ewes  can  be 
managed  a  little  less  carefully,  especially  if  they 
are  in  strong  condition,  though  there  is  a  comfort 
in  knowing  that  every  stomach  worm  germ  that 
falls  to  the  earth  must  die  from  a  lack  of  a  host. 

To  make  this  thing  doubly  successful  put  flat  bot- 
tomed troughs  in  the  pastures  ahead,  where  the 
lambs  run,  and  put  feed  in  them ;  any  sort  of  grain, 
corn,  oats,  barley,  bran,  coarse-ground  or  broken 
cake  or  oil  meal.  Thus  the  lambs  will  grow  like 
weeds  and  pay  many  times  over  for  their  grain. 
Thus  more  sheep  may  be  carried  on  the  same 
ground  than  would  be  possible  under  ordinary  treat- 
ment. There  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  number 
of  sheep  that  can  be  safely  kept  on  an  eastern  farm 
under  this  system  of  management.  The  limit  is,  of 
course,  the  size  of  the  farm  and  the  amount  of  grass. 
Even  this  can  be  greatly  helped  by  soiling.  Eacks 
may  with  great  profit  be  placed  in  the  fields  and  the 
ewes  fed  green  crops,  fresh  mown  oats,  peas,  clover 
or  alfalfa.  Thus  twice  as  many  ewes  may  be  kept 
as  the  grass  alone  will  support.  The  writer  would 
suggest  that  about  400  ewes  would  keep  one  man 
nicely  busy  in  caring  for  them  and  their  lambs,  haul- 


176  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

ing  water  to  them,  soiling  somewhat,  and  feeding 
the  lambs.  He  would  not  hesitate  to  undertake  the 
management  of  400  ewes  on  one  farm  in  any  part 
of  the  cornbelt,  the  regions  most  infested  with  stom- 
ach worms.  There  is  no  business  more  sure  of 
profit  than  this.  Lambs  sell  remarkably  well  and 
the  prospect  is  that  as  the  western  ranges  are  dimin- 
ished they  will  sell  better,  for  the  ravages  of 
the  stomach  worm  deter  eastern  farmers  from  going 
into  the  business.  The  two  serious  obstacles  to  be 
overcome  are :  first,  the  question  of  water  and  next, 
the  question  of  shade.  Water  is  readily  hauled  in 
mounted  tanks  as  it  usually  is  in  England.  Shade 
is  not  absolutely  essential.  The  writer  has  seen 
very  fat  sheep  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley  of  Califor- 
nia confined  to  the  alfalfa  meadows  and  with  no 
shade  whatever.  Probably  a  system  of  canvas 
sheds,  long  and  narrow,  would  not  be  very  expensive 
nor  too  troublesome  for  one  man  to  move  and  set 
up  unaided.  Any  sort  of  good  grass  will  serve. 
Kentucky  bluegrass  is  to  be  preferred,  perhaps 
brome  grass  (Bromus  inermis)  is  better;  clovers 
may  be  utilized  and  oats  sown  to  be  grazed  off,  with 
peas. 

The  writer  does  not  hesitate  to  say  that  he  looks 
forward  to  seeing  many  sheep  farms  established  in 
the  cornbelt,  each  carrying  from  200  to  500  ewes 
and  managed  nearly  under  this  system.  He  feels 
confident  that  no  other  branch  of  the  live  stock  in- 
dustry holds  forth  better  prospects. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  earlier  the 


SUMMER   CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  177 

lambs  are  born  the  sooner  they  will  be  gone  to  mar- 
ket, and  thus  the  fewer  pastures  will  be  needed. 
Also  the  market  is  usually  best  in  June  and  July, 
after  the  flood  of  fed  lambs  has  passed  and  before 
the  new  crop  from  the  ranges  has  started  to  come. 

Besides  the  stomach  worm  there  is  the  worm  that 
makes  the  nodular  disease  of  the  intestines.  Any 
observant  man  who  has  dissected  a  mature  sheep 
has  often  noticed  on  the  small  intestines  little  nod- 
ules or  "knots."  These  are  really  small  tumors, 
filled  with  a  greenish,  cheesy  substance.  They  do 
not  do  much  harm  when  they  are  few  in  number, 
but  the  trouble  is  a  cumulative  one  and  the  numbers 
of  the  nodules  increase  until  after  a  time  digestion 
and  absorption  are  much  interfered  with.  Some- 
times parts  of  the  intestines  become  calcified,  that 
is,  so  impregnated  with  lime  salts  that  they  are 
almost  like  stone.  Death  ensues  in  a  longer  or 
shorter  time  from  the  nodular  disease.  It  does  not 
work  quickly  as  does  the  disease  caused  by  the  stom- 
ach worm.  The  worm  causing  these  tumors  is 
called  oesophagostoma  columbianum. 

This  nodular  disease  is  a  hard  one  to  cure,  if  in- 
deed it  is  possible  to  cure  it  at  all  after  it  is  estab- 
lished. Prevention  is  about  all  that  we  can  do.  Dr. 
W.  H.  Dalrymple  of  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Sta- 
tion has  shown,  however,  that  it  is  readily  commu- 
nicable from  affected  ewes  to  their  lambs  through 
the  medium  of  the  pasture.  He  has  also  demon- 
strated that  where  diseased  ewes  are  kept  confined 
to  the  barn  and  their  lambs  allowed  to  run  on  clean 


178  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

pasture  not  contaminated  by  the  presence  of  any 
old  sheep,  the  lambs  remain  healthy  and  thus  a  new 
and  healthful  stock  can  be  had  even  from  a  diseased 
flock.  None  of  these  diseases  originates  spontane- 
ously. There  are  no  other  known  hosts  of  these 
diseases  than  sheep,  goats  and  perhaps  deer,  so  it 
is  merely  a  question  of  starting  with  the  lambs, 
born  free  of  all  parasites,  and  keeping  them  in 
health  by  putting  them  on  fresh  and  uninfested 
pasture. 

USE   OF   SOWN   PASTURES.. 

The  easy  way  of  management  is  to  use  only  the 
wild  or  natural  grass  pastures,  the  same  ones  year 
after  year,  but  there  is  often  great  good  resultant 
from  sowing  special  pasture  crops  for  the  flock. 
Rye  sown  in  the  fall  will  afford  very  useful  pasture 
before  Christmas  and  again  very  early  in  spring. 
If  vetches  are  sown  with  the  rye  in  mild  latitudes 
they  will  together  in  spring  make  good  grazing,  and 
clover  sown  in  March  will  take  the  land  after  the 
rye  is  gone.  Eye  is  not  a  rich  grazing  crop ;  in  fact, 
is  a  poor  one,  but  it  adds  the  element  of  succulence 
to  the  diet  and  thus  has  its  value.  Then  it  gives 
employment  and  exercise  in  the  way  that  the  ewe 
likes  best  to  take  it,  wandering  about  the  field  and 
picking  here  and  there.  Then  there  is  almost  no 
danger  at  all  of  parasite  infection  from  grazing 
rye,  or  from  grazing  any  sown  crop  for  that  mat- 
ter. Eye  where  clover  is  sown  with  it  should  not 
be  too  closely  grazed  after  the  clover  gets  started, 
and  it  is  well  to  cut  it  for  hay  before  it  heads.  If 


SUMMER  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 


179 


180  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

permitted  to  liead  it  becomes  woody  and  makes  very 
inferior  hay,  and  the  clover  does  not  come  on  again 
so  quickly. 

OATS  AND  ALFALFA  PASTURE. 

Oats  sown  early  in  the  spring  with  clover  or 
alfalfa  form  an  excellent  pasture  for  about  two 
months  in  late  spring  and  early  summer,  following 
the  use  of  rye.  Oats  should  be  sown  on  good  soil 
or  should  be  well  fertilized  and  may  be  sown  rather 
thickly,  as  much  as  two  bushels  per  acre,  with  about 
a  peck  of  clover  or  alfalfa.  If  the  land  is  well 
drained — a  clay  loam  with  limestone  in  it — alfalfa 
will  make  the  best  growth  and  pasture.  Eed  clover, 
however,  thrives  on  thinner  soils  than  alfalfa  and 
is  the  pioneer  among  the  legumes.  On  any  rich 
limestone  clay  soils,  however,  alfalfa  is  the  queen 
of  forage  crops  from  Labrador  to  the  Gulf.  In  de- 
pasturing oats  where  legumes  have  been  sown  with 
them  some  judgment  must  be  exercised  else  the  deli- 
cate clovers  will  suffer.  It  is  well  to  allow  the  oats 
to  get  up  about  eight  inches  high,  then  turn  in  and 
permit  the  sheep  to  eat  them  down  pretty  close, 
which  should  be  done  in  three  or  four  days.  If 
there  are  not  enough  sheep  to  do  that,  divide  the 
field  by  temporary  fences  or  hurdles,  depasturing 
a  part  at  a  time. 

As  soon  as  the  oats  are  eaten  down  take  the  sheep 
off  and  let  the  plants  come  again.  They  may  thus 
be  repeatedly  grazed  and  the  result  will  be  a  beau- 
tiful stand  of  clover  or  alfalfa. 

After  midsummer,  however,  it  may  be  wise  to 


SUMMER   CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  181 

keep  the  flock  entirely  off  this  field,  letting  the  clover 
or  alfalfa  get  strong  to  withstand  the  trial  of  the 
coming  winter. 

Young  clover  and  alfalfa  should  never  be  grazed 
hard  nor  eaten  close  the  first  year,  else  the  stand 
will  be  seriously  weakened. 

CLOVER  AND  ALFALFA  PASTURE. 

By  all  odds  the  most  useful  summer  pastures  in 
the  cornbelt  are  those  composed  of  clover  or  alfalfa. 
There  are  several  distinguishing  advantages  in 
these  crops:  they  renew  the  soil,  they  are  rich  in 
protein  and  add  to  the  size,  health  and  vigor  of  the 
sheep;  they  afford  a  great  amount  of  grazing  and 
they  are  almost  absolutely  free  from  danger  of  car- 
rying parasitic  infection.  The  reason  for  the  health- 
fulness  of  these  plants  is  that  sheep  crop  the  higher 
leaves  and  stems,  leaving  the  parts  close  to  the 
ground  and  thus  escape  germs  that  may  lurk  down 
close  to  the  earth. 

Either  red  clover  or  alfalfa  is  too  richly  a  nitro- 
genous product,  however,  to  be  grazed  alone.  Sheep 
confined  to  either  of  them  must  eat  too  much  pro- 
tein and  will  therefore  crave  food  of  more  carbo- 
naceous or  starchy  composition.  They  will  greedily 
eat  grasses  or  even  hay  or  dry  straw  to  help  bal- 
ance their  ration.  Therefore  it  is  wise  to  sow  a 
mixture  of  grasses  with  the  clovers.  The  best 
grasses  for  this  purpose  are  smooth  brome  grass 
and  orchard  grass.  Either  of  these  come  on  quick-- 
ly  and  give  a  continuous  grazing  with  the  clovers. 


182  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

Of  the  two,  brome  grass  (Bromus  inermis)  is  by  far 
the  better,  yielding  more  grazing  and  being  better 
relished  by  the  stock.  Indeed  this  brome  grass  is 
one  of  the  best  pasture  grasses  we  have  and  of  easy 
culture,  though  it  should  always  be  sown  in  connec- 
tion with  some  clover,  else  it  fails  to  yield  as  it 
should. 

Eed  clover  and  alfalfa  should  not  be  mixed  to- 
gether. If  they  are  the  red  clover  having  the  habit 
of  more  vigorous  growth  at  first  crowds  badly  its 
slower  neighbor.  It  is  wise,  however,  to  put  about 
10  per  cent  of  alfalfa  seed  in  all  clover  mixtures 
sown  on  suspected  alfalfa  soil,  for  the  small  amount 
of  alfalfa  will  infect  the  field  with  the  alfalfa  bac- 
teria so  that  in  after  years  it  may  be  all  profitably 
sown  to  alfalfa  alone. 

DANGER    FROM    CLOVER    AND    ALFALFA    PASTURE. 

Sheep  grazing  leguminous  crops  often  suffer  from 
hoven,  or  bloat,  caused  by  the  fermentation  of  the 
tender  leaves  within  the  paunch.  The  greatest  dan- 
ger of  this  is  when  the  clover  is  young  and  tender 
and  growing  rapidly. 

After  alfalfa  becomes  woody  there  is  not  much 
danger  from  bloating.  Nor  is  there  so  much  danger 
when  grasses  are  mixed  with  the  clovers  in  the  pas- 
ture. After  sheep  become  accustomed  to  eating  the 
clovers,  they  have  then  learned  somewhat  by  in- 
stinct how  much  to  store  within.  Pasturing  on  clo- 
vers is  never  absolutely  safe,  yet  certain  simple 
rules  will  almost  always  prevent  trouble. 


SUMMER   CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  183 

First,  the  clovers  should  have  reached  nearly  to 
the  blossoming  stage  before  the  sheep  are  turned  in. 

The  sheep  should  not  be  hungry.  They  should 
have  a  preliminary  course  of  feeding  of  some  sort 
till  their  appetites  are  well  sated.  Perhaps  a  fill-up 


YEARLING    OXFORD    RAM. 


on  good  grass  pasture  will  generally  best  accomplish 
this-. 

They  should  go  on  the  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture 
after  eating  all  they  will  of  other  things  at  about  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  at  a  time  when  they  natu- 
rally prefer  to  cease  eating  and  go  to  lie  in  the 
shade. 

They  should  be  given  salt  as  soon  as  put  upon 


184  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

pasture,  and  salt  mixed  with  air-slaked  lime  should 
be  kept  before  them. 

They  should  never  thereafter  be  removed  night 
or  day,  rain  or  shine,  as  long  as  they  are  desired 
to  graze  the  field. 

Of  course  they  may  have  the  run  of  an  adjacent 
grass  pasture,  and  be  permitted  to  go  and  come  at 
will,  but  they  must  never  be  taken  away  even  for  a 
few  hours  and  allowed  to  get  hungry  and  then  re- 
turned to  the  clover  or  alfalfa  field.  If  they  are, 
there  is  danger  that  they  will  gorge  themselves  too 
suddenly  and  bloating  may  result. 

The  writer  devotes  considerable  space  to  the  sub- 
ject because  he  has  had  a  long  and  successful  expe- 
rience in  pasturing  clover  and  especially  alfalfa 
with  sheep,  and  in  his  practice  he  has  found  these 
rules  essential  to  success.  It  is  well  worth  the  risk, 
seeing  that  this  pasture  returns  such  well  nourished 
and  healthy  sheep  and  is  so  free  from  danger  of 
parasitic  infection.  The  writer,  has  annually  lost 
from  2  to  4  per  cent  from  bloat  on  alfalfa  pasture, 
commonly  of  animals  not  in  the  best  health,  and  if 
it  has  returned  the  other  96  or  98  per  cent  in  fine 
health  to  him,  he  considers  the  sacrifice  of  small 
amount. 

The  following  remedies  for  bloated  sheep  are 
good: 

When  first  in  distress,  administer  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  raw  linseed  oil  in  which  is  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  turpentine. 

If  this  does  not  relieve  at  once,  tie  or  hold  a  large 


SUMMER  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 


185 


corncob  or  stick  of  similar  size  crossways  in  the 
mouth  like  a  bridle  bit;  hold  the  head  up,  stand 
astride  the  ewe  and  seek  gently  to  press  out  the  gas 
with  the  knee.  Do  not  use  too  much  force. 

Pour  several  buckets  of  very  cold  water  slowly 
on  the  distended  side  over  the  paunch.    This  often 


LEICESTER    RAM. 


of  itself  relieves  the  distress  by  stopping  the  accu- 
mulation of  gas. 

If  there  is  too  much  distension  for  these  meas- 
ures to  relieve,  make  an  incision  on  the  left  side, 
high  up,  where  the  greatest  distension  is  seen,  and 
let  the  gas  escape.  A  trochar  is  best  for  this  but  a 
penknife  will  serve.  The  incision  should  be  just 


186  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

large  enough  to  insert  some  small  tube — a  small 
joint  of  cane  fishing  pole,  a  pipestem  or  goosequill. 

Keep  hold  of  the  tube,  else  it  will  slip  within  the 
paunch  and  be  lost  and  perhaps  do  serious  damage 
to  the  sheep.  After  relief  has  been  had  disinfect 
the  wound.  It  should  not  be  large  enough  to  need 
stitches,  but  care  must  be  had  that  flies  do  not  blow 
it.  Pine  tar  will  repel  flies.  The  wool  should  be 
cut  away  from  the  wound. 

There  will  be  some  years  when  there  will  not  be 
occasion  for  any  remedy  whatever  and  with  the 
same  treatment  there  will  be  at  other  times  more 
or  less  trouble.  During  hot  and  wet  weather  when 
alfalfa  is  stimulated  to  very  rapid  growth  more 
trouble  may  be  expected. 

The  writer  has  been  in  the  habit  of  pasturing 
alfalfa  and  yet  allowing  the  sheep  to  shade  in  the 
barn,  permitting  them  to  come  off  in  the  morning 
when  it  gets  too  hot  for  their  comfort.  He  has, 
however,  been  careful  that  a  boy  should  stir  them 
out  and  send  them  fieldward  again  by  three  or  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

In  sowing  alfalfa  that  probably  may  be  pastured, 
be  sure  to  sow  a  mixture  of  brome  grass  (Bromus 
inermis)  with  it.  A  light  scattering  of  brome  seed 
is  best,  else  it  will  soon  crowd  out  the  alfalfa.  We 
have  had  no  difficulty  in  eradicating  the  brome  grass 
when  afterward  the  fields  have  been  cultivated. 

The  writer  has  solved  most  of  the  problems  of 
summer  management  in  the  way  outlined.  One  se- 
rious trouble,  however,  remains  for  solution.  The 


SUMMER  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  187 

\  -  — -•*. 

ewes  will  often  get  too  fat  under  such  treatment 
and  somteimes  refuse  to  breed  regularly.  He  has 
not  yet  found  a  solution  of  this  problem.  In  Eng- 
land, where  this  often  occurs,  the  fat  ewes  would  go 
for  mutton  and  there  would  end  that  difficulty,  but 
where  one  has  a  flock  of  pure-bred  sheep  of  consid- 
erable value  this  is  not  a  satisfactory  solution  for 
America. 

Some  manner  of  exercising  the  flock  will  probably 
prove  the  best  cure  for  the  sterility,  but  as  a  busi- 
ness proposition  with  a  grade  flock  it  is  no  very 
serious  matter. 

Where  one  is  within  reach  of  tracts  of  rough  and 
poor  mountain  pasture  the  problem  is  solved  in  a 
natural  way  by  turning  the  flock  onto  this  thin 
grass  where  they  must  take  abundant  exercise  by 
walking  and  climbing  and  will  not  find  an  excess  of 
food.  This  is  the  natural  way  of  preventing  an 
excess  of  flesh. 

It  is  not  a  safe  plan  to  attempt  reduction  of  flesh 
by  over-pasturing  of  small  and  fertile  fields.  The 
result  is  to  cause  the  ewes  to  gnaw  the  herbage 
there  into  the  ground  and  parasitic  infection  is 
pretty  sure  to  follow. 

THE  USE  OF  RAPE. 

Eape  belongs  to  the  same  order  of  plants  as  the 
cabbages,  and  rape  leaves  have  a  similar  taste  and 
appearance  as  cabbages.  On  rich  soil  rape  yields 
an  astonishing  amount  of  forage,  which  must  be 
eaten  green,  as  owing  to  its  watery  nature  it  can- 


188  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

not  be  cured  into  hay.  There  seems  a  peculiar  affin- 
ity between  the  cabbage  family  and  the  sheep.  Com- 
mon cabbages,  thousand-headed  kale,  rape,  swede 
turnips — all  are  greedily  eaten  and  make  good, 
healthful  development. 

Eape  comes  into  good  play  during  the  drouths  of 
autumn  and  after  cool,  frosty,  weather  has  stopped 
the  growth  of  grass  in  the  fall.  It  may  be  sown  in 
the  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  working,  using 
about  three  or  four  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  and 
letting  the  cultivator  cover  it.  Should  the  season 
prove  moderately  moist  thereafter  the  rape  will 
come  on  and  be  ready  to  make  a  vigorous  growth  as 
soon  as  the  corn  is  cut.  By  the  middle  of  October 
it  may  be  waist  high  over  the  field  and  will  afford 
an  immense  amount  of  grazing  until  Christmas  or 
later. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  turn  on  rape  early 
in  the  morning  in  late  fall  when  it  is  frosted,  as 
every  leaf  that  is  bent  at  that  time  will  blacken  and 
decay.  It  takes  a  cold  of  about  12°  above  to  injure 
rape  if  it  is  not  disturbed  until  it  has  thawed  again. 

Sheep  will  fatten  on  rape,  though  an  addition  of 
grain  is  profitable  and  access  to  a  grass  pasture  or 
the  regular  feeding  of  good  hay  in  connection  with 
it  is  very  desirable.  There  is  some  danger  from 
bloat  in  rape  feeding,  though  the  writer  has  never 
had  to  treat  a  sheep  for  rape  bloating  nor  lost  one. 
The  value  of  rape  as  a  grazing  plant  for  sheep  is  too 
little  appreciated. 

The  Dwarf  Essex  seems  the  best  variety  to  sow. 


SUMMER   CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  189 

In  Oregon  thousand-headed  kale  gives  the  best  re- 
sults.    It  is  like  a  larger  rape. 

CABBAGES. 

In  fitting  sheep  for  the  show  ring  cabbages  are 
almost  indispensable,  and  for  feeding  in  fall  and 
early  winter  they  are  most  excellent.  In  many 
places  cabbage  grows  luxuriantly  and  a  given 
amount  of  sheep  feed  can  probably  be  as  cheaply 
grown  from  this  plant  as  in  any  other  way.  In 
considering  these  foods  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  a  certain  portion  of  succulence  is  absolutely 
neces-sary  to  sheep  if  it  is  to  be  kept  in  perfect 
health.  It  is  less  trouble  to  grow  the  common  farm 
crops  of  grain  and  hay  and  sheep  can  be  maintained 
upon  them  alone,  but  not  in  their  highest  degree  of 
health  and  profit.  There  is  also  in  the  rape,  tur- 
nips and  cabbages  some  quality  that  makes  for 
healthful  growth  of  wool. 

PUMPKINS. 

Among  the  best  autumn  and  early  winter  supple- 
mentary foods  for  sheep  are  pumpkins.  They  are 
readily  grown  in  the  cornfield  or  in  a  separate  field 
by  themselves  and  yield  a  large  amount  of  feed  to 
the  acre.  Our  method  of  growing  is  to  use  pump- 
kin seeds  to  replant  with  in  the  cornfield,  putting 
them  in  wherever  missing  hills  occur.  In  this  man- 
ner we  have  secured  as  high  as  two  tons  of  pump- 
kins to  the  acre  without  in  the  least  injuring  the 
crop  of  corn,  provided  the  season  proved  favorable. 


190  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

In  fact,  the  shading  of  the  ground  between  the  corn 
rows  by  the  wide  leaves  of  the  pumpkin  vines  serves 
to  help  conserve  the  moisture  when  it  is  most  needed 
and  the  corn  is  often  the  better  for  the  association 
of  the  vines.  It  is  safer,  however,  to  plant  pumpkins 
by  themselves. 

Pumpkins  serve  the  flock  in  two  ways :  first,  as  a 
direct  and  healthful  food  of  considerable  nutritive 
value  and  yet  never  dangerous  from  excessive  rich- 
ness, and  next  from  the  direct  medicinal  value  of 
the  seeds.  Pumpkin  seeds  are  among  the  best  ver- 
mifuges known.  They  should  never  be  removed 
from  the  pumpkins  but  fed  all  together,  and  if  fed 
in  considerable  amounts,  the  direct  and  immediate 
improvement  in  the  flock  will  be  very  apparent. 
Tapeworms  have  never  troubled  the  writer's  flock 
in  the  least  and  no  other  reason  can  be  attributed 
than  the  annual  liberal  pumpkin  feeding. 

The  way  to  feed  pumpkins  is  to  strew  them  about 
the  pasture  without  cutting  them  open  at  all,  or  at 
least  cutting  only  a  few  of  them.  If  many  are  cut 
the  sheep  eat  only  the  soft  inside  parts  at  first,  with 
the  seeds,  and  might  in  this  way  get  too  many  seeds 
for  their  good,  whereas  when  they  must  gnaw  away 
into  the  pumpkin  they  will  eat  it  up  clean  before  at- 
tacking another.  The  pumpkins  keep  better  to  be 
scattered  over  the  field  than  to  be  piled  in  heaps,  at 
least  before  the  frost  strikes  them. 

The  secret  in  growing  pumpkins  is,  first,  to  have 
the  land  rich,  then  to  plant  a  great  surplus  of  seeds. 
The  striped  cucumber  beetle  revels  on  pumpkin 


SUMMER  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  191 

leaves,  and  if  not  enough  are  planted  for  him  and 
you  also  he  will  reap  the  entire  harvest  at  an  early 
date.  They  may  be  thinned  after  beginning  to  vine. 
It  is  particularly  desirable  to  have  the  ewe  flock 
thriving  and  increasing  in  flesh  at  time  of  breeding. 
Not  only  will  the  lambs  conceived  at  such  a  time 
be  of  superior  weight  but  there  will  be  a  larger 
number  of  twins  among  them. 

CARE  OF  THE  FEET. 

When  the  sheep  are  turned  to  pasture  in  the 
spring  their  feet  should  be  carefully  trimmed  and 
shortened.  It  is  easier  to  do  this  if  they  are  per- 
mitted to  go  in  the  wet  grass  for  a  day  or  two  and 
are  taken  in  while  their  hoofs  are  yet  soft.  They 
will  at  such  a  time  cut  like  cheese,  whereas  if  they 
are  trimmed  when  dry  they  will  be  very  horny  in 
texture. 

Nature  evidently  intended  the  sheep  for  climbing 
over  very  rocky  soil  where  the  feet  would  be  sub- 
jected to  rapid  wear.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  in  se- 
lecting individuals  for  their  superior  wool  growth 
the  horn  growth  of  the  feet  has  kept  apace  with  the 
wool  growth  in  some  degree,  since  there  is  a  rela- 
tionship between  horn  growth  and  wool.  In  any 
event  it  is  very  unlikely  that  with  the  amount  of 
travel  needed  on  arable  farms  the  sheep  will  suffi- 
ciently wear  down  their  feet  to  relieve  the  shep- 
herd of  need  to  trim  them  twice  a  year,  and  with 
some  breeds  more  often. 

Unless  the  feet  are  kept  trimmed  they  will  be- 


192  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

come  deformed  and  the  sheep  will  stand  on  one  side 
of  the  foot,  with  the  ankle  turned  over,  giving 
doubtless  some  pain  and  a  very  awkward  look. 

The  aim  of  trimming  should  be  to  keep  the  feet 
as  short  as  possible,  not  to  cut  to  the  quick,  so  that 
they  may  be  able  to  stand  naturally  and  squarely 
upon  them.  It  is  probable  that  lack  of  trimming  is 
in  some  degree  responsible  for  disease  of  the  feet. 
Disease  may  occur,  unfortunately,  even  in  feet  that 
have  been  well  trimmed,  and  the  subject  must  have 
attention. 

FOOT-HOT  AND  FOOT-SCALD. 

The  shepherd  commonly  makes  a  distinction  be- 
tween a  simple  contagious  affection  of  the  foot 
called  foot-scald  and  the  real  and  very  serious  dis- 
ease, also  contagious,  called  foot-rot.  There  seems 
reason  to  believe  that  there  is  a  form  of  foot-scald 
that  rapidly  goes  through  a  flock  yet  readily  yields 
to  treatment  that  is  distinct  from  the  more  severe 
and  less  easily  eradicated  foot-rot. 

It  is  the  belief  of  the  writer,  however,  that  quite 
often  the  shepherd  hides  his  genuine  foot-rot  be- 
hind the  more  harmless  appellation. 

There  is,  however,  an  inflammation  of  the  skin 
between  the  claws  of  the  foot  that  does  not  extend 
beneath  the  horny  covering  of  the  foot  itself  and 
that  yields  quite  readily  to  a  simple  treatment  of 
putting  the  sheep  upon  a  dry  footing,  cleansing 
from  filth  and  an  application  of  some  coaltar  dip  or 
carbolic  acid. 

When  the  disease  has  penetrated  beneath  the  shell 


SUMMER   CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  193 

of  the  foot  and  there  is  found  there  a  watery,  evil- 
smelling  exudation  it  is  genuine  foot-rot  and  should 
have  immediate  and  thorough  treatment,  with  pre- 
ventive measures  to  preclude  its  spreading  to  the 
rest  of  the  flock. 

First,  it  is  necessary  to  pare  away  all  the  horn 
that  hides  the  diseased  surface.  The  disease  being 
one  of  germ  origin,  there  is  no  hope  of  cure  except 
through  the  complete  destruction  of  the  germs,  and 
they  must  therefore  be  uncovered  from  their  hiding. 
A  sharp  knife  in  the  hands  of  a  careful  and  thor- 
ough man  is  a  kind  thing  to  the  affected  sheep,  even 
though  it  may  cause  some  temporary  pain.  No 
germicide  can  penetrate  the  horn. 

When  once  the  diseased  surface  is  laid  bare  it  is 
only  necessary  to  wet  it  well  with  a  strong  solution 
of  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper),  or  butter  of 
antimony,  to  bind  it  up  if  much  horn  has  been  cut 
away  and  keep  the  sheep  on  dry  footing  for  a  time. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  the  disease  through  the  flock.  To  do  this  all  feet 
should  be  carefully  trimmed  and  any  sore  ones 
given  individual  treatment.  Then  a  trough  6"  wide 
in  the  bottom,  12"  wide  at  the  top,  12"  deep  and 
about  10'  long  should  be  made  of  three  two-inch 
planks.  This  must  be  enclosed  with  hurdles  so  that 
the  sheep  may  be  compelled  to  pass  through  it.  The 
writer  has  fastened  such  a  trough  at  the  door  of 
the  sheep  barn  so  that  in  order  to  pass  out  the  flock 
must  pass  through  the  trough.  Then  it  was  only 
necessary  to  confine  the  flock  for  a  time  and  they 


194  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

would  of  tlieir  own  accord  go  out,  each  one  walking 
through  the  trough. 

This  treatment  was  given  daily  for  a  week  or  so, 
as  it  took  little  of  the  shepherd's  time  and  was  in- 
expensive. By  this  means  foot  disorders  were  erad- 
icated from  the  flock  after  having  caused  much 
trouble. 

In  the  trough  was  placed  a  simple  lime  white- 
wash, in  which  was  sufficient  blue  vitriol  to  give 
it  a  blue  color.  This  effectually  prevented  the  spread 
of  the  disease  and  cured  many  cases  in  their  incip- 
iency. 

In  no  other  business  is  it  more  true  that  "a  stitch 
in  time  saves  nine"  than  in  the  care  of  sheep. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  average  American 
farmer  sells  out  when  foot-rot  strikes  his  flock  when 
he  can  so  easily  control  and  eradicate  the  disease. 
Troubles  must  come  in  all  endeavors,  so  when  one 
has  been  suffered  and  the  remedy  therefor  found 
it  is  not  a  reason  for  abandonment  of  enterprise 
but  the  more  reason  for  continuance,  rather  than  to 
"fly  to  troubles  we  know  not  of." 

ADVENT   OF  LATE   LAMBS. 

There  are  situations  where  it  is  desirable  that 
lambing  should  be  delayed  until  grass  comes.  When 
forage  and  grain  are  scarce  and  the  means  not  at 
hand  to  nourish  well  the  ewe  after  lambing  until 
grass  comes,  when  indeed  grass  is  the  chief  asset  of 
the  shepherd  it  is  wise  to  time  the  lambing  so  that 
the  lambs  will  come  at  about  the  same  time  as  the 


SUMMER   CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT 


195 


grass.  Indeed  a  lamb  dropped  then  will  make  a  far 
better  growth  than  one  dropped  weeks  earlier  from 
a  poorly-nourished  ewe,  half-starved  by  its  mother 
because  she  cannot  give  it  much  milk  before  she  her- 
self has  been  fed.  Nor  will  such  a  ewe  respond  in 


I 

B 


IMPORTED  HAMPSHIRE  RAM  LAMBS. 

her  milk  flow  to  green  grass  as  she  would  did  her 
lamb  come  after  grass  has  started  anew  in  her  veins 
a  vigorous  coursing  of  the  vital  fluid. 

It  is  most  wise,  however,  to  see  to  it  that  these 
late  lambing  ewes  are  strengthened  by  some  supple- 


196  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

mentary  feeding  before  the  lambs  appear.  A  little 
grain  fed  then  will  repay  its  cost  several  times,  for 
the  well-nourished  ewe  goes  easily  through  the 
pains  of  lambing  and  loves  well  her  offspring  if  she 
has  milk  for  it  inside  her  udder. 

The  shepherd  who  lambs  on  grass  may  have  the 
lamb  crop  all  born  within  a  very  few  days.  They 
will  be  anxious  days  while  they  last,  but  the  agony 
is  soon  over,  seeing  that  this  is  the  time  Nature  set 
for  this  miracle  to  take  place,  and  the  ewes  natu- 
rally conceive  readily  to  lamb  then.  Great  watch- 
fulness is  necessary  and  there  are  certain  helps  that 
may  be  mentioned. 

THE  LAMBISTG  TENT. 

Many  western  sheep  owners  use  small  shelter 
tents  about  42  inches  square,  supported  by  curved 
iron  rods,  to  shelter  the  ewe  and  her  lamb  from 
storm.  These  tents  are  readily  carried  and  set  over 
the  ewe  anywhere.  They  serve  to  keep  her  and  her 
offspring  together  while  they  are  becoming  ac- 
quainted, and  by  turning  the  chilling  rain  save 
many  lambs  that  would  otherwise  be  lost.  As  these 
tents  are  inexpensive  and  can  readily  be  made  by 
the  shepherd  himself  some  of  them  should  be  at 
hand  when  an  early  lambing  on  grass  is  planned. 

It  is  desirable  to  scatter  the  flock  as  much  as  pos- 
sible at  this  time,  for  then  the  ewes  are  the  more 
readily  kept  track  of  and  their  lambs  are  not  so 
often  lost  through  mixing  and  straying  from  their 
mothers.  This  latter  is  particularly  dangerous  in 


SUMMER   CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  197 

case  of  twins,  seeing  that  the  ewe  is  often  content 
if  she  has  one  lamb  with  her  and  looks  very  little 
for  the  other. 

There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  however.  The 
writer  has  known  Dorset  ewes  that  seemed  to  have 
perfect  memories  and  a  knowledge  of  numbers  and 
would  seek  as  earnestly  for  a  strayed  twin  as 
though  it  were  a  single  lost  lamb. 

Seeing  that  the  ewes  at  this  time  must  give  their 
attention  to  their  lambs  and  cannot  wander  wide  in 
search  of  food,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  lamb  them  on 
some  specially  good  piece  of  grass.  And  to  aid  in 
keeping  them  quiet  the  shepherd  may  carry  with 
him  oats,  giving  a  handful  to  the  ewe  wherever  he 
finds  her.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  a  larger  per 
cent  of  lambs  will  be  saved  by  lambing  on  grass 
than  by  lambing  earlier,  nor  will  they  ever  be  so 
good  as  early  lambs  pushed  from  the  start,  but  they 
may  be  produced  with  comparatively  little  trouble 
and  in  some  situations  are  the  only  ones  that  it  is 
practicable  to  produce.  The  care  of  the  shepherd 
is  particularly  required  when  ewes  lamb  on  grass. 

No  lambs  should  be  permitted  to  be  born  later 
than  the  first  of  May,  except  in  a  high  mountainous 
region  where  grass  starts  late  and  cool  summer 
weather  prevails.  Lambs  born  in  May,  June  or 
July  seldom  amount  to  much,  owing  no  doubt  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  almost  sure  to  become  infested 
with  parasites.  Between  April  and  September, 
then,  there  should  be  no  lambing  done.  Rather  than 
to  lamb  out  of  season  the  ewe  should  be  allowed  to 


198  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

go  over  open  and  she  may  be  bred  in  the  spring  for 
fall  lambs. 

FALL  LAMBS. 

The  best  sheep  are  developed  from  fall-born 
lambs.  They  may  begin  to  come  in  September. 
From  this  time  on  till  winter  the  conditions  are  ex- 
cellent for  their  growth  and  development.  The 
weather  then  is  favorable,  food  is  abundant,  the 
ewes  are  easily  made  to  milk  largely,  and  instead  of 
the  weather  becoming  warmer  and  more  oppressive 
it  becomes  steadily  more  and  more  stimulating  to 
the  lambs.  And,  best  of  all,  there  is  little  danger  of 
parasites  at  this  time.  The  fall  lambs  come  out  in 
spring  half  matured  and  able  to  go  safely  and 
healthfully  through  the  trials  of  summer.  Or  if 
they  are  sold  at  the  market  they  bring  long  prices 
in  winter  time.  It  is  not  altogether  easy  to  get 
ewes  to  lamb  in  the  fall.  Certain  breeds  refuse  al- 
together to  do  this,  but  with  some  of  the  Merinos 
and  their  grades  and  the  Dorsets  and  Dorset  grades 
it  is  not  so  difficult  of  accomplishment.  To  get 
ewes  to  breed  in  spring  the  conditions  of  fall  must 
be  complied  with  as  nearly  as  possible. 

First,  the  ewes  must  have  their  lambs  of  the  pre- 
vious crop  born  as  early  as  possible  so  that  they 
may  be  weaned  and  new  strength  gained  from  a 
term  of  rest. 

Next,  they  must  be  sufficiently  well  fed  so  that 
they  will  feel  an  ascending  current  of  health 
throughout  their  veins. 

They  must  have  the  ram  turned  with  them  before 


SUMMER   CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  199 

warm  weather  comes  on.  April  and  May  are  the 
months  in  which  to  breed  ewes  for  fall  lambs. 

The  rams  must  not  as  a  usual  thing  be  permitted 
to  run  continually  with  the  ewes  at  this  time.  If 
they  do  they  themselves  soon  acquiesce  in  the  idea 
that  it  is  an  unnatural  time  for  breeding.  It  is 
wise  if  the  ram  can  be  kept  up  and  turned  with  the 
flock  for  only  an  hour  or  two  each  day,  as  described 
in  earlier  pages  of  this  work.  Or  two  rams  may  be 
used,  their  rivalry  exciting  them  to  extra  exertion. 

There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  breeding  in- 
stinct is  in  part  a  result  of  mental  processes  that 
may  be  stimulated  by  suggestion.  This  is  almost  as 
true  of  the  sheep  as  it  is  of  higher  races  of  animals. 
The  ram  that  persistently  courts  the  ewe  may  after 
a  time  so  divert  (by  his  suggestion)  blood  to  her  re- 
productive organs  as  to  cause  her  to  come  in  heat 
and  conceive  at  a  time  when  naturally  these  organs 
would  be  in  a  dormant  condition. 

If  the  shepherd  does  not  care  to  risk  the  uncertain 
mental  influence  of  the  ram  he  may  practice  holding 
the  ewe  and  compelling  her  to  accept  the  attention 
of  the  ram  once.  This  often  supplies  stimulation 
enough  to  cause  her  to  come  naturally  in  heat  and 
to  conceive  at  the  later  service. 

Fall-born  lambs  in  America  have  developed  into 
as  fine  sheep  as  ever  were  produced  in  England. 
This  is  true  of  few  lambs  born  in  spring,  no  matter 
how  skillfully  they,  have  been  treated.  Fall-born 
ram  lambs  make  fine  strong  fellows  when  they  are 
yearlings  and  ready  to  go  into  service. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
WASHING,  SHEAKING  AND  MAEKING. 

The  washing  of  sheep  to  remove  the  surplus  oil 
in  the  wool  was  once  a  universal  practice.  It  was 
one  of  those  old  practices,  like  putting  "  redding " 
on  the  fleeces  to  make  the  sheep  look  attractive  (?) 
that  are  hard  to  account  for.  The  washing  did  not 
prepare  the  wool  for  the  manufacturer  nor  render 
it  more  easily  scoured  by  him.  It  did,  however,  ren- 
der it  lighter,  and  therefore  the  buyers  found  wash- 
ing to  their  advantage. 

At  the  present  time  few  sheep,  comparatively 
speaking,  are  washed  before  shearing.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  profitable  in  some  localities  where  buyers 
discriminate  sharply  against  unwashed  wool  to  con- 
tinue to  put  sheep  through  the  water  as  of  old. 

If  the  sheep  owner  can  find  a  buyer  who  really 
knows  his  business  and  buys  honestly,  he  will  gei) 
as  much  for  his  fleeces  unwashed  as  washed,  and 
can  therefore  save  himself  the  disagreeable  task 
and  the  flock  the  injury  that  such  a  shock  is  bound 
to  inflict. 

One  serious  disadvantage  of  washings  is  that  it 
cannot  be  done  safely  and  comfortably  until  the 
advent  of  warm  weather,  whereas  the  flock  should 

(200) 


WASHING,    SHEARING    AND    MARKING  201 

be  shorn  much  before  that  time,  unless  it  be  a  hill 
flock  running  without  shelter. 

For  washing  sheep  a  considerable  body  of  water 
is  required.  It  is  usual  to  take  advantage  of  a  creek 
or  natural  pool.  The  sheep  are  immersed,  the  wool 
squeezed  a  little  between  the  hands  and  they  are 
permitted  to  go  out  and  drain  themselves  on  the 
bank.  No  soap  is  used,  as  the  oil  of  the  wool  is 
itself  readily  dissolved  in  water,  and  it  is  this  oil 
only  that  is  sought  to  be  removed.  It  is  usual  to 
allow  ten  days  or  two  weeks  to  elapse  after  washing 
before  the  sheep  are  shorn;  and,  in  fact,  it  is  not 
easy  to  shear  them  as  soon  as  they  are  dry  owing  to 
the  difficulty  in  penetrating  the  wool  with  the  shears 
until  more  oil  has  been  secreted  in  the  wool. 

WASHING    AND    SHEARING. 

The  dipping  tank  can  be  used  for  washing  sheep, 
but  not  unless  there  can  in  some  way  be  secured  a 
continuous  stream  of  water  to  flow  through  it.  The 
sheep  should  not  drain  back  into  the  tank  in  case 
it  is  used.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  custom  of 
washing  will  soon  be  one  of  ancient  history  wher- 
ever sheep  are  grown. 

Some  sheep  owners  have  their  fleeces  tub-washed 
after  being  taken  from  the  sheep's  back.  This  is 
not  difficult  to  do,  only  that  the  drying  is  slow  and 
it  ought  not  to  be  necessary. 

The  writer,  living  on  the  fortieth  parallel,  usually 
shears  his  ewe  flock  the  first  week  in  April  and 
sometimes  the  last  week  in  March. 


202  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

There  are  several  advantages  of  this  early  shear- 
ing. About  this  time  ewes  that  have  been  well  fed 
often  experience  a  little  loosening  of  the  wool,  as 
though  it  were  time  to  shed  it  off,  and  locks  will  be 
lost,  particularly  about  the  neck. 

Then  the  advent  of  warm  days  causes  a  feeling 
of  languor  and  the  sheep  do  not  eat  and  thrive  as 
has  been  their  wont.  And  again,  there  are  many 
showers  in  April  and  the  flock  with  fleeces  on  lit- 
erally "has  not  sense  enough  to  come  in  out  of  the 
rain"  and  the  fleeces  become  drenched  and  heavy. 
Then  they  keep  their  lambs  out  in  the  rain,  whereas 
if  they  were  shorn  they  would  flee  to  their  sheds 
as  soon  as  the  first  drops  struck  them. 

Any  one  who  has  once  tried  this  early  shearing 
will  continue  it.  Should  the  flock  be  poorly  fed, 
however,  and  unsheltered,  the  fleeces  should  be  left 
on  until  the  middle  of  May. 

The  amount  of  wool  taken  off  in  a  period  of  years 
will  probably  be  nearly  the  same  whether  shorn  in 
April,  May  or  June,  with  the  probability  that  the 
early-shorn  sheep  through  their  greater  vigor  and 
healthfullness  may  shear  the  most. 

SHEAKING. 

The  shearing  of  sheep  is  an  art  not  to  be  imme- 
diately learned  by  the  novice.  It  requires  several 
seasons'  practice  to  make  an  expert  shearer  of  a 
man.  There  is,  unfortunately,  a  scarcity  of  good 
shearers  in  all  our  eastern  states.  It  is  a  trade 
that  any  vigorous  young  man  may  learn  with  sure 


WASHING,    SHEARING    AND    MARKING  203 

expectation  of  making  good  wages  for  some  weeks 
each  season.  A  good  shearer  will  shear  from  45  to 
100  sheep  in  a  day,  using  common  hand  shears.  He 
will  get  for  his  service  from  4  to  10  cents  each,  per- 
haps 6  cents  being  the  average  price. 

The  shearing  place  should  be  in  some  light,  airy 
part  of  the  barn.  A  clean  platform  on  which  to 
work  is  necessary.  If  nothing  else  is  available, 
since  sheep  barns  have  usually  the  natural  earth 
floor,  a  spare  barn  door  may  be  taken  from  its 
hangings  and  laid  down  for  temporary  use.  A  small 
pen  close  by  holds  enough  sheep  in  readiness  to 
keep  the  shearer  busy  for  some  hours. 

In  back  regions  it  is  customary  to  tie  the  legs  of  a 
sheep,  place  it  on  a  low  platform  or  box  and  set 
two  men,  or  one  man  and  a  boy  at  work  cutting  off 
the  fleece.  This  is  a  childish  and  unskilled  method 
that  should  not  be  imitated. 

The  sheep  is  a  peculiar  animal,  directly  sensitive 
to  touch.  Tie  the  legs,  or  even  touch  them,  it  re- 
sponds by  struggling  to  be  free.  Turn  it  so  that  it 
cannot  get  its  feet  to  the  ground  and  its  struggles 
cease,  as  though  it  knew  the  hopelessness  of  strug- 
gling. 

Following  this  thought,  if  one  attempts  to  hold  a 
horned  sheep  by  the  horns  it  continues  to  struggle 
and  cannot  seem  to  understand  why  it  is  not  free. 
It  cannot  feel  the  press  of  the  hand  upon  the  horn. 
Hold  the  same  sheep  by  a  touch  under  the  chin  and 
if  it  has  had  a  trifle  of  training  it,  feeling  your  hand, 
vields  and  stands  dutifully. 


204  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

The  shearer  then,  without  tying  the  feet,  turns 
the  sheep  upon  its  rump,  with  its  head  and  shoul- 
ders resting  against  him,  supported  by  the  left  arm 
and  with  the  shears  in  the  right  hand  opens  the 
wool,  usually  on  the  right  shoulder,  and  proceeds  to 
clip  it  away,  keeping  it  as  much  as  possible  in  one 
piece.  That  is,  he  strips  it  away  easily  and  gently 
as  he  would  remove  a  coat.  It  is  essential  that  he  so 
bend  the  sheep's  body  that  the  skin  will  be  at  all 
times  tight.  If  this  is  done  it  is  easy  to  cut  the  wool 
closely  and  there  is  little  danger  of  cutting  the  skin. 

When  the  wool  is  removed  all  very  dirty  pieces 
should  be  separated  from  it  and  never  tied  up  with 
the  fleece.  There  is  need  of  honesty  in  tying  wool 
and  nothing  but  wool  should  go  inside  a  fleece.  The 
fleece  is  rolled  with  the  belly  and  loose  ends  inside, 
the  cut  fibers  out.  It  is  tied,  not  too  tightly,  with 
special  wool  twine  wrapped  twice  or  at  most  three 
times  around. 

The  use  of  binder  twine  or  any  but  special  wool 
twine  greatly  injures  the  wool,  as  the  small  bits  of 
fiber  get  in  it  and  not  taking  dyes  must  be  picked  out 
by  hand.  This  occasions  a  loss  of  sometimes  as 
much  as  5  cents  per  pound  which  must  eventually 
come  from  the  producer,  since  manufacturers  learn 
what  sort  of  stuff  is  to  be  expected  from  some  re- 
gions and  bid  for  it  accordingly.  Some  farmers  are 
disposed  to  overlook  such  points  in  marketing  their 
products,  but  it  invariably  results  in  loss,  not  only 
to  themselves,  but  frequently  to  a  whole  community. 

There  is  no  need  of  a  box  or  wool  table  for  tying 


WASHING,    SHEARING    AND    MARKING 


205 


a  very  compact  bundle  since  buyers  prefer  the  ordi- 
nary, rather  loosely  tied  fleeces. 


SHEARING   MACHINES. 


The  use  of  machines  has  now  become  quite  com- 
mon in  shearing  sheep  and  they  are  sufficiently  well 


'  ' :::: 


HAND-SHEARING    MACHINE. 


perfected  so  that  they  do  their  work  with  little 
trouble  from  breakage.  It  is  far  easier  to  learn  to 
shear  sheep  with  machine  than  by  hand,  though  old 
shearers  prefer  the  hand  shears  and  can  shear  as 
many  sheep  in  the  old-fashioned  way  as  with  the 
machine.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  novice;  he  will 


206  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

shear  twice  as  many  with  the  machine  as  he  will 
with  hand  shears. 

Then  the  work  is  far  better  done  with  the  ma- 
chine. There  are  no  shear  wounds  and  the  fleeces 
are  taken  off  closely  and  evenly.  There  need  be 
made  no  second  cuts,  which  cause  short  fibers  little 
better  than  shoddy. 

The  machine  shears  in  careful  hands  will  cut  in 
two  every  tick  and  leave  the  sheep  clean  of  that 
vermin. 

Against  its  use  is  the  cost  of  the  machine,  about 
$15.00  for  a  hand  machine,  and  the  cost  of  repairs. 
If  well  oiled  and  cared  for,  however,  it  will  last  for 
many  seasons  with  occasional  renewal  of  cutting 
parts. 

Then  there  is  needed  a  boy  to  turn  the  crank,  so 
that  its  use  requires  two  persons  to  shear  a  sheep. 
As  the  boy  is  unskilled  and  may  usually  be  had  for 
a  small  sum  this  is  not  important.  Altogether  the 
writer  advises  the  man  who  has  not  available  skilled 
shearers  of  the  old-fashioned  type,  and  does  the 
shearing  himself,  to  use  the  machine.  If  he  must 
hire  shearers  he  had  better  let  them  furnish  their 
own  tools. 

There  are  power  machines  for  large  plants.  These 
are  operated  very  successfully  by  gasoline  engines, 
and  there  are  small  power  machines  with  two  sets 
of  shears.  These  are  entirely  practical,  but  it  is  not 
usually  profitable  to  install  a  power  plant  for  fewer 
than  500  sheep. 

When  sheep  are  to  go  to  market  after  being  shorn 


WASHING,    SHEARING    AND    MARKING 


207 


208  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

the  machine  is  a  saving  since  it  takes  off  more  wool 
than  hand  shears  can.  The  saving  is  from  2  to  8 
ounces.  A  saving  of  4  ounces,  or  %  pound,  would 
pay  the  cost  of  shearing.  All  sorts  of  sheep  are 
shorn  by  machines,  though  they  work  especially 
well  on  downs,  long-wools  and  Dorsets.  They 
are  harder  to  operate  on  western  lambs  that  have 
been  dipped  and  placed  on  feed  in  winter,  owing 
to  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  wool  which  seems 
to  be  affected  by  the  shock  of  transportation  and 
dipping  and  to  be  dead  at  that  point  and  consequent- 
ly hard  to  get  the  shears  into. 

A  fat  sheep  nicely  shorn  with  the  machine  shears 
is  a  very  attractive  object  and  appears  fatter  than 
when  shorn  by  hand. 

The  shearing  machine  should  not  be  used  in  mid- 
summer, or  if  it  is  it  should  not  be  set  to  run  very 
close,  else  there  will  not  be  enough  wool  left  on  to 
protect  the  sheep  from  flies  and  sunburn  and  it  will 
suffer  severely  before  the  wool  has  grown  out  again. 

It  is  in  some  situations  a  good  plan  to  shear  a 
flock  of  ewes  twice  a  year,  once  very  early,  say  in 
late  March,  and  again  in  August.  The  wool  will 
not  be  quite  so  valuable,  for  it  will  be  shorter,  but 
the  relief  to  the  sheep  in  getting  rid  of  its  warm 
coat  at  this  sultry  time  is  remarkable  and  it  will 
thrive  far  better  than  unshorn,  lambing  stronger  if 
it  is  to  drop  fall  or  early  winter  lambs  and  conceiv- 
ing earlier  if  it  is  not  yet  bred.  The  writer  has 
practiced  this  and  has  not  had  to  take  more  than 
one  cent  per  pound  less  for  his  short  wool,  which 


WASHING,    SHEARING    AND    MARKING  209 

loss  is  not  worth  mentioning  when  the  advantage  to 
the  flock  is  considered. 

It  is  a  custom  of  some  shepherds  and  feeders  to 
shear  sheep  and  lambs  before  placing  them  on  feed 
in  the  fall  and  early  winter. 

There,  is  little  advantage  in  this.  It  forces  and 
crowds  them  close  together  and  they  do  not  gain 
any  better. 

The  one  advantage  is  that  it  is  easier  to  free  them 
from  ticks  after  they  are  shorn,  and  if  they  are 
dipped  less  fluid  is  required. 

MAEKING. 

When  sheep  go  to  pasture  it  is  well  to  have  a 
mark  upon  them  so  that  in  case  they  accidentally 
become  mixed  with  other  sheep  they  may  be  known. 

A  large  letter  made  of  wood,  with  a  handle  to 
It,  is  used,  some  thick  paint  serving  for  ink.  Lin- 
seed oil  and  lampblack  make  a  durable  mark,  plain- 
ly seen. 

Permanent  marking  is  done  by  splitting,  crop- 
ping or  notching  the  ears.  This  is  the  universal 
custom  on  western  ranges,  but  such  disfigurement 
is  seldom  practiced  in  eastern  states.  There  are 
metal  labels  that  are  inserted  in  the  ears;  these 
bear  the  name  of  the  owners,  or  numbers,  or  the 
numbers  assigned  to  registered  sheep  by  the  breed 
secretaries. 

There  are  various  forms  of  these  metal  ear  tags. 
None  of  them  is  absolutely  sure  to  remain  in  the 
ear.  The  difficulty  is  that  the  ears  become  sore  and 


210  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

pus  formation  eats  away  so  much  of  the  tissue  that 
the  labels  drop  out  or  they  are  caught  and  torn  out 
by  some  branch  or  nail.  They  may  remain  in  place 
for  years  and  they  may  become  lost  in  a  short 
time.  There  is  a  right  and  a  wrong  way  to  put 
these  metal  tags  in. 

The  right  way  is  to  use  a  punch,  cutting  out  an 
oval. bit  of  the  ear  tissue  and  to  make  the  hole  some 
days  before  the  label  is  inserted,  giving  the  ear  time 
to  heal  in  the  meantime. 

Then  the  hole  must  be  so  carefully  gauged  that 
the  label  will  not  compress  the  ear,  yet  will  fit  snug- 
ly and  present  little  of  projection  to  catch  and  cause 
it  to  be  torn  out.  If  this  course  is  taken  most  of 
the  labels  will  remain  in  place. 

THE   TATTOO   MAKK. 

The  best  method  permanently  marking  a  sheep  is 
by  the  tattoo  mark.  This  is  especially  applicable  to 
sheep  with  light-colored  ears,  though  it  is  used  on 
some  of  the  down  breeds. 

The  tattoo  properly  put  in  is  absolutely  per- 
manent. It  does  not  annoy  the  sheep,  and  once  put 
in  is  a  sure  record  as  long  as  the  animal  lives. 

There  are  sets  of  tattooing  instruments  sold  by 
dealers  in  shepherds'  supplies.  These  consist  of  a 
frame  with  handles  like  pinchers  in  which  are  set 
removable  letters  and  numbers.  These  letters  and 
numbers  have  a  great  number  of  sharp  points,  form- 
ing the  characters,  and  the  handles  when  closed 
cause  these  points  to  prick  the  required  characters. 


WASHING,    SHEARING    AND    MARKING  211 

India  ink  is  the  pigment  used  and  when  pressed 
into  these  minute  wounds  remains  there,  leaving  an 
indelible  black  tracing.  There  is  danger  of  the  care- 
less or  inexperienced  operator  making  failure  with 
this  tatooing  outfit,  for  certain  things  are  essential. 
The  levers  must  be  so  adjusted  that  when  closed  the 
points  will  prick  evenly  the  required  characters  in 
a  thick  sheet  of  paper  or  cardboard.  If  any  do  not 
make  their  mark  the  instrument  is  out  of  adjust- 
ment or  the  letters  worn  out.  These  points  rust 
unless  kept  oiled  when  not  in  use. 

Then  in  placing  in  the  letters  or  figures  one  must 
be  sure  that  he  has  them  in  right.  They  are  like 
type,  reversed,  so  that  it  is  puzzling  at  first  to  the 
operator  to  use  them  and  it  is  well  to  test  them  on  a 
bit  of  cardboard  before  using  them  on  the  sheep. 
After  once  the  mark  is  in  the  ear  there  is  no  eras- 
ing it. 

Then  there  should  be  used  a  great  abundance  of 
the  india  ink,  smearing  as  much  on  the  points  as 
possible  and  afterward  rubbing  more  in  the  ear  with 
the  finger.  If  once  the  pricks  are  made  in  the  ear 
and  the  ink  rubbed  in  them  the  deed  is  done  and  will 
endure. 

In  England  there  are  men  who  make  a  business 
of  marking  sheep  with  the  tattoo  mark.  It  is  the 
official  marking  of  a  number  of  breeds  and  the  sec- 
retary often  attends  in  person  to  the  marking.  It 
is  the  most  desirable  mark  for  any  pure-bred  sheep 
that  is  to  be  retained  as  a  breeder,  though  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  use  this  mark  on  stock  sheep 


212  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

that  are  soon  to  be  fattened.  It  may,  however,  save 
much  dispute  if  all  stock  ewes  have  their  owner's 
mark,  seeing  that  they  may  become  mixed  on  pas- 
ture. 

MARKING  PURE-BRED  LAMBS. 

When  lambs  that  are  pure-bred  are  to  be  regis- 
tered it  is  essential  that  the  shepherd  so  mark  them 
at  an  early  age  as  to  identify  them  later  according 
to  their  parentage.  This  is  by  no  means  an  easy 
task.  A  very  small  lamb  cannot  safely  carry  a 
mark  in  its  ear  and  there  is  a  little  trouble  later  on 
in  discovering  which  ewes  are  the  mothers  of  the 
lambs. 

The  writer  has  found  a  good  plan  to  be  to  let  them 
run  until  they  are  well  grown,  but  still  sucking ;  then 
separate  them  from  their  mothers  some  morning  and 
keep  them  apart  until  they  are  eager  for  association 
with  their  dams.  Then  the  lambs  may  be  caught  one 
at  a  time,  and  in  one  ear  a  tattoo  number  be  put. 
This  should  be  in  the  opposite  ear  from  where  the 
permanent  number  is  to  go.  These  numbers  may  be- 
gin each  year  at  No.  1,  running  up  as  high  as  neces- 
sary. 

Having  the  number  in  the  lamb's  ear  and  entered 
it  in  a  book,  the  lamb  is  placed  with  the  ewes,  where 
it  soon  singles  out  its  mother,  and  while  sucking  she 
is  caught  and  her  number  noted  and  entered  opposite 
that  of  the  lamb.  A  name  may  be  given  the  lamb  at 
the  same  time,  though  individual  names  except  for 
exceptionally  good  lambs  are  hardly  worth  while. 
It  is  easier  and  as  well  to  designate  them  simply  by 


WASHING,    SHEARING    AND    MARKING  213 

numbers,  identifying  them  with  the  name  of  the 
breeders  or  the  farm,  as  "Jones'  99"  or  "Wood- 
land 174." 

Of  course  tiiese  permanent  numbers  must  be  con- 
secutive from  year  to  year  else  the  secretary  would 
find  duplicates  in  his  records. 

After  the  lambs  have  been  weaned  and  are  suf- 
ficiently developed  to  indicate  which  are  worth  per- 
manent record  their  records  are  sent  to  the  breed 
secretary  and  he  records  them  and  sends  with  their 
certificates  the  association  number,  which  must  be 
placed  in  the  ear  left  blank  for  that  purpose. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  confusion  by 
using  occasionally  the 'wrong  ear,  and  it  is  well  to 
use  numbers  of  different  size  for  this  first  marking. 
If  they  are  a  trifle  larger  than  the  permanent  num- 
bers it  is  well,  seeing  that  the  ear  will  grow,  and  if 
they  were  made  a  little  smaller  they  would  in  time 
become  of  the  same  size  as  the  ones  later  put  in. 

The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  shepherds  are 
usually  very  careless  in  assigning  mothers  to  lambs 
for  record  and  guess  more  than  they  should. 

The  English  system  is  to  record  the  individual 
rams  and  the  ewes  by  flocks  only.  Seeing  that  they 
have  achieved  glorious  results  in  the  development 
of  breeds  by  their  course  it  would  seem  presump- 
tions for  the  American  breeders  to  claim  superiority 
of  method.  The  writer  unhesitatingly  declares  that 
the  English  system  should  be  adopted  on  this  side 
of  the  water  and  sees  but  one  objection  to  it,  that, 
perhaps,  a  fatal  one,  that  in  recording  by  flocks  men 


214  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

are  not  compelled  to  pay  much  for  the  support  of 
the  breed  association.  In  England  this  is  done 
largely  by  subscription  and  liberal  annual  dues; 
here  by  charging  50c  each  for  recording  individual 
sheep.  The  English  system  would  relieve  the  secre- 
taries of  a  vast  amount  of  drudgery  that  seems  to 
have  accomplished  very  insignificant  results. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  WESTERN 
STATES. 

NEW   MEXICO. 

The  management  of  flocks  upon  the  great  ranges 
of  the  West  varies  considerably  according  to  the 
climate  and  topography  of  the  country  and  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  men  engaged  in  the  in- 
dustry. Probably  the  oldest  sheep  industry  in  the 
United  States  was  founded  in  New  Mexico  by  the 
early  Mexican  colonists  of  Spanish  and  Indian 
origin.  There  are  in  New  Mexico  vast  plains  rang- 
ing from  4,000  to  8,000  feet  in  altitude,  interspersed 
with  mountains  and  canyons.  These  plains  are  gen- 
erally covered  with  a  rather  thick,  short  grass  of 
considerable  nutritive  value.  The  climate  is  dry 
and  moderately  cool,  especially  at  night. 

The  days  are  almost  uniformly  sunny  and  warm. 

The  native  Mexican  sheep  found  there  in  its 
purity  is  becoming  more  and  more  uncommon,  owing 
to  the  steady  introduction  of  Merino  blood.  There 
has  also  been  introduced  here  more  or  less  blood 
from  the  English  breeds,  but  as  a  rule  the  Merino 
has  been  found  to  cross  better  and  to  withstand  the 
conditions  better  than  the  mutton  breeds. 

Management  on  most  of  these  Mexican  ranches 

(215) 


216  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

is  extremely  simple.  Native  Mexican  sheep  owners 
often  use  corrals  (small  yards  built  of  cedar  or 
pinion  posts  set  close  in  the  ground)  in  which  the 
flocks  (called  "herds"  throughout  the  West)  are 
confined  at  night.  This  secures  them  from  loss  from 
coyotes  or  mountain  lions.  The  corralling  is,  how- 
ever, a  serious  injury  to  the  sheep  since  they  must 
travel  some  distance  to  and  from  the  enclosure  and 
what  is  worse  must  await  the  pleasure  of  the  herder 
before  they  can  go  forth  to  graze  in  the  morning. 

CHAKACTER  OF  MEXICAN  SHEEP. 

The  native  Mexican  sheep  is  indeed  a  "sorry" 
animal,  having  few  characteristics  that  we  are  wont 
to  associate  with  good  form  or  character.  It  has  a 
thin  neck  and  feeble  look,  a  curving  back,  round, 
contracted  belly,  thin  legs  and  rather  woe-begone 
countenance.  The  wool  is  coarse  and  scanty,  the 
bellies  and  legs  being  often  bare.  And  yet  the 
Mexican  sheep  is  not  without  its  peculiar  virtues. 

It  is  fairly  prolific  and  the  lambs  are  hardy.  It 
is  a  great  traveler  and  can  subsist  upon  scanty  and 
dry  forage.  When  worst  comes  to  worst,  and  in 
the  lower  country  along  the  Eio  Grande,  far  down 
in  Texas  and  across  the  river  in  old  Mexico  rain 
does  not  fall  and  all  herbage  is  dried  up  and  turned 
to  dust,  the  humble  Mexican  still  subsists  upon  the 
tender  ends  of  twigs,  upon  cactus  joints,  upon  the 
withered  grass  growing  between  the  cactus  bunches 
and  upon  dry  weeds  that  have  blown  by  the  wind 
across  the  plains.  They  may  become  very  much 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES 


217 


emaciated  but  seldom  perish.  The  Mexican  ewe 
when  mated  with  a  good  Merino  ram  produces  an 
offspring  far  superior  to  herself,  and  with  a  second 
cross  upon  this  foundation  very  serviceable  flocks 
are  established.  Indeed,  a  very  great  number  of 
flocks  throughout  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Arizona, 


YEARLING    OXFORD    RAM. 


Utah   and   California   have   been  bred   up   from   a 
Mexican  basis. 

After  infusion  of  Merino  blood  the  use  of  rams 
of  one  of  the  mutton  breeds  produces  an  admirable 
lamb,  sprightly,  a  good  feeder,  healthy  and  rugged. 
There  will  occur,  however,  a  good  many  cases  of 
reversion  to  type,  when  the  Mexican  character  will 


218  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

crop  out,  modified,  but  not  destroyed  by  the  for- 
eign bloods. 

THE  "GOOD  OLD  TIMES "  IN  NEW  MEXICO. 

Under  the  old-fashioned  regime  in  New  Mexico 
not  much  improvement  of  the  herds  was  possible. 
There  was  no  provision  for  winter  feeding  and  there 
often  occurred  a  somewhat  long  period  of  semi- 
starvation.  Water  was  not  readily  accessible  and 
often  of  execrable  quality,  being  supplied  by  shal- 
low pools  or  lakes  that  became  incredibly  foul  and 
dangerous  to  drink  from.  There  is  now  a  consider- 
able number  of  men  engaged  in  sheep  growing  un- 
der better  conditions.  Near  the  irrigable  valleys 
vast  amounts  of  alfalfa  are  grown  and  winter  feed- 
ing is  practiced  to  some  extent.  Better  rams  are 
used  than  formerly,  Eambouillets  having  been  used 
to  a  considerable  extent,  together  with  Delaines  and 
other  Merinos.  In  some  places  Shropshire  and  even 
Cotswold  blood  has  been  introduced.  Native  Mexi- 
can sheep  owners  have  in  many  instances  given  way 
to  American  owners  and  in  other  instances  have 
themselves  learned  better  methods.  A  peculiar  in- 
dustry of  this  region,  especially  down  along  the 
Pecos  Eiver,  is  the  lambing  of  ewes  in  the  alfalfa 
fields  in  March  or  earlier,  and  growing  the  lambs 
rapidly  with  grain  and  green  alfalfa  for  early  mar- 
keting in  May  and  June. 

MODEKN    MANAGEMENT. 

A  herd  may  contain  from  500  to  3,000  sheep.  Per- 
haps 2,000  would  be  considered  a  good-sized  but 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES 


219 


220  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

workable  herd  in  New  Mexico.  At  lambing"  time  the 
ewe  band  is  divided,  not  more  than  1,000  being  to- 
gether. Good  shepherds  seldom  use  the  corral  at 
night,  since  its  use  is  almost  certain  to  bring  a 
steady  deterioration  in  a  good  flock  and  prevent  the 
improvement  of  a  bad  one.  Instead  of  the  corral 
the  sheep  are  driven  at  evening  time  near  to  the 
tent  of  the  herder  and  watched  for  a  little  time  when 
they  finally  lie  down  in  a  compact  body.  They  are 
then  said  to  be  "bedded  down"  and  will  remain 
there  quietly  until  morning  unless  the  moon  happens 
to  be  very  bright,  or  something  occurs  to  frighten 
them. 

It  is  usual  to  have  bells  upon  a  number  of  the 
sheep.  The  herder  in  his  tent  close  at  hand  hears 
the  jingle  of  the  bells  if  the  sheep  start  to  move  off 
and  goes  around  them  or  sends  his  dog.  Soon  the 
habit  is  formed  with  great  fixity  of  "bedding  down" 
regularly  close  to  their  herder  and  they  do  not  often 
try  to  stray  without  serious  provocation. 

Very  early  in  the-  morning  the  herd  awakens  and 
unless  there  is  a  storm  threatening,  of  which  they 
have  instinctive  foreknowledge,  they  will  go  out  to 
graze.  The  shepherd,  or  "sheep  herder"  as  he  is 
often  called,  directs  them  to  the  one  way  or  the 
other  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  range,  and 
swallowing  his  rather  hastily  prepared  breakfast 
sets  out  after  them  to  see  that  they  do  not  scatter 
too  wide  or  go  too  far.  At  noon  he  may  return  to 
his  tent  and  prepare  his  midday  meal  and  perhaps 
the  flock  will  lie  quiescent  for  some  hours  if  feed  is 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  221 

fairly   abundant   and   there   is    shade    of   trees    or 
rocks. 

As  evening  approaches  he  gathers  them  together 
and  follows  them  to  their  bed  ground  again  and 
thus  has  closed  the  labor  of  the  day.  The  work  is 
not  usually  laborious  but  it  calls  for  faithfulness 
and  considerable  patience,  and  to  be  a  really  first- 
class  "sheep  herder"  requires  a  deep  insight  into 
the  ways  of  sheep  and  of  all  wild  Nature  as  well. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   RANGE. 

Sheep  in  this  region  are  healthy  except  for  two 
principal  troubles :  scab,  which  was  once  almost  uni- 
versal, and  stomach  worms,  or  "lombriz,"  which  are 
occasionally  destructive  to  lambs.  Scab  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  eradicate  on  ranches  where  corrals  are  used 
continuously  and  where  flocks  stray  about  and  cross 
each  other's  paths,  and  especially  if  they  alternately 
use  certain  corrals.  Of  recent  years,  however,  many 
herds  have  been  made  completely  clean  of  scab  and 
there  is  hope  that  all  may  be  rid  of  it  in  the  near 
future. 

That  scab  is  not  a  necessary  adjunct  of  range 
sheep  the  writer  has  amply  proved,  having  com- 
pletely eradicated  it  from  his  own  herds  when  en- 
gaged in  ranching  in  Utah. 

Stomach  worms  (Haemonchus  contortus)  infect 
flocks  that  drink  from  shallow  pools  where  to  avoid 
the  filth  the  sheep  and  lambs  wade  out  till  the 
water  comes  to  their  bellies,  depositing  there  more 
germs  of  whatever  parasite  they  may  harbor.  There 


222  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

would  be  no  stomach  worms  in  these  regions  if  sheep 
watered  at  clean  drinking  places,  or  at  least  the 
number  would  be  greatly  restricted. 

MEXICAN   LAMBS   AS   FEEDEKS. 

Mexican  lambs  have  been  favorites  among  Colo- 
rado feeders  ever  since  they  commenced  their  feed- 
ing operations  in  that  region.  They  have  found  their 
death  losses  comparatively  low  from  the  Mexican 
lambs,  and  that  with  a  given  amount  of  feed  they 
make  good  gains.  When  fat  they  sell  well  because 
they  dress  well,  and  their  small,  light  carcasses  are 
in  favor  with  local  retailers  of  mutton.  They  are 
doubtless  often  palmed  off  on  eastern  buyers  as 
"spring  lambs. "  Brought  to  Ohio  the  writer  did 
not  find  them  as  profitable  feeders  as  lambs  from 
Utah,  Wyoming  or  Montana,  making  much  smaller 
gains  and  shearing  very  light  fleeces. 

Some  of  these  Mexican  ewe  lambs  (having  one 
cross  of  Merino  blood)  were  kept  on  an  Ohio  farm 
and  bred  to  lamb.  They  did  not  by  their  perform- 
ance indicate  that  they  were  desirable  stock  for 
eastern  conditions.  The  writer  thinks  the  sooner 
the  half  wild  "  Mexican "  blood  is  bred  out  of  these 
sheep  the  better,  save  for  very  hard  conditions  of 
drouth  and  thinly-grassed  ranges. 

THE   WANDERING   HERDS. 

In  Utah,  Nevada  and  parts  of  Colorado  and  in 
Idaho  (with  also  a  part  of  Arizona  and  California) 
a  peculiar  system  of  sheep  ranching  prevails.  It 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  223 

might  be  called  the  nomadic,  or  trailing  system,  for 
the  herds  spend  their  summers  on  the  high  moun- 
tain pastures,  their  springs  and  falls  in  intermediate 
regions  and  their  winters  in  the  low-lying  parts,  on 
the  deserts  and  foothills.  Some  of  the  better  cared- 
f or  flocks  are  fed  during  part  of  the  winter  or  spring 
on  alfalfa  or  other  hay  grown  in  the  valleys. 

These  trailing  bands  of  sheep  are  in  charge  of 
herders  each  having  in  his  care  from  2,000  to  3,000 
except  during  lambing  time,  when  he  is  given  a 
smaller  number  and  very  often  has  help  in  addition. 
He  may  start  with  them  in  spring,  when  their  jour- 
ney begins  from  the  desert  toward  the  mountains. 
All  winter  they  have  lived  on  desert  herbage  and 
brush,  and  snow  has  been  largely  their  reliance  for 
drink.  When  that  is  melted  and  the  water  holes  are 
dried  up  the  sheep  must  come  out  of  the  desert  and 
head  toward  their  mountain  ranges.  Very  often 
these  ranges  are  a  hundred  miles  away  and  in  rarer 
instances  they  are  much  more  distant.  The  herder 
moves  the  band  each  day  by  slow  stages  towards 
their  destination,  taking  care  to  visit  each  promising 
spot  along  the  way  where  perchance  food  may  be 
found.  This  forage  may  be  of  green  grass  quick 
grown  from  the  melting  snows  and  genial  sun,  which 
even  in  March  shows  a  fervor  unknown  in  eastern 
lands,  or  it  may  be  the  young  shoots  of  rabbit  brush, 
willows  and  sage  with  an  admixture  of  weeds. 

The  herder  usually  has  a  wagon  equipped  with  a 
canvas  cover,  stove  and  commissary.  In  this,  his 
home,  he  is  established  and  with  it  he  journeys  in 


224  SHEEP  FARMING   IN  AMERICA 

a  desultory  fashion,  searching  right  and  left  for 
subsistence  for  his  flock.  There  is  a  steadily  inten- 
sifying spirit  of  opposition  to  the  nomadic  sheep 
men  on  the  part  of  local  settlers  along  streams  and 
in  the  valleys  of  these  mountain  states,  since  the 
herds  eat  the  grass  that  would  naturally  belong  to 
settlers'  horses  and  cows,  and  because  they  some- 
times pollute  streams  that  must  serve  as  drinking 
water  for  the  settlers  and  their  animals. 

WAITING  FOK  GRASS  TO   COME. 

The  herder  cannot  hasten  toward  his  coveted 
destination,  for  when  by  drouth  he  is  driven  from 
the  desert  the  snow  is  yet  covering  his  summer 
range,  hence  there  may  be  a  trying  period  of  jour- 
neying with  occasionally  very  short  feed.  In  fact, 
traveling  flocks  not  unfrequently  camp  on  each  oth- 
er's bed  grounds,  one  after  the  other  in  succession 
sometimes  to  the  number  of  half  a  dozen.  The  last 
comers  find  little  to  eat  save  the  roots  of  the  grass. 

This  habit  of  roving  prevents  the  sheep  men  from 
having  any  very  great  regard  for  the  preservation 
of  the  range  and  makes  it  difficult  for  them  to  pre- 
serve it  even  should  they  desire  so  to  do.  In  truth 
there  are  regions  where  nomadic  sheep  have  changed 
a  once  well-grassed  country  into  one  almost  bare  of 
grass  and  containing  no  forage  other  than  compara- 
tively worthless  brush  and  weeds. 

Lambing  is  usually  delayed  until  the  flocks  are 
established  upon  their  summer  range,  since  it  is 
difficult  to  move  ewes  with  young  lambs  without 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  225 

great  loss.  It  is  a  happy  moment  when  after  very 
great  trials  and  toil  the  flock  reaches  the  high  moun- 
tain pastures,  the  snow  is  found  to  be  gone  and 
green  grass  abounds.  Then  there  is  long  rest  be- 
fore distant  journeying  must  begin  again.  The 
moves  are  of  only  a  few  miles  each  and  camps  may 
remain  for  days  and  sometimes  for  weeks  without 
being  moved.  The  weather  upon  these  green  moun- 


CLACK-FACED  SHEEP  IN  THE   HILLS. 

tain  pastures  is  stimulating  and  delicious ;  there  are 
lovely  groves  of  aspens  and  cool  pine  woods  inter- 
spersed with  flower-decked  grassy  glades.  The 
lambs  are  born  here  and  start  into  vigorous  life  and 
growth,  far  exceeding  that  of  lambs  born  on  lower 
altitudes  on  the  plains  of  New  Mexico. 

From  some  of  these  mountain  ranges  come  the 
best  and  fattest  lambs  that  reach  the  markets  of 
Omaha,  Kansas  City  and  Chicago,  beginning  in  Au- 


SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

gust  and  continuing  until  cold  weather.     Idaho  es- 
pecially and  Utah  are  noted  for  their  fine  lambs. 

THE  BLOOD  OF  THE  HERDS. 

The  basis  of  the  flocks  of  this  region  is  Merino, 
but  there  has  been  added  a  great  deal  of  mutton 
blood,  where  the  ability  of  the  range  to  produce  fine 
lambs  has  been  recognized.  The  Cotswold  has 
worked  great  changes  in  Utah  and  some  adjacent 
territory.  Shropshires  have  been  used  in  many 
places.  Hampshires  have  been  introduced  also,  and 
upon  good  ranges  and  in  the  hands  of  generous  men, 
able  to  give  good  care  and  liberal  feeding,  they  have 
proved  worthy. 

THE  DIVISION  OF  THE  RAXGES. 

There  is  at  present  a  general  move  upon  the  part 
of  sheep  owners  in  these  mountain  regions  to  get 
in  some  way  possession  of  parts  of  their  ranges. 
They  seek  ownership  of  the  summer  range,  or  of 
parts  of  the  fall  and  spring  ranges,  and  are  estab- 
lishing farms  where  forage  may  be  cut  and  stored 
for  winter  use.  There  is  a  large  body  of  good  citi- 
zens engaged  in  the  sheep  industry  in  these  regions 
and  also  unfortunately  some  of  the  most  selfish  and 
degraded  of  men.  A  nomadic  sheep  herd  under  the 
management  of  an  ignorant,  lawless  and  irrespon- 
sible man  is  a  curse  to  any  land  over  which  it  travels. 
It  sheds  off  scab  germs  to  infect  other  herds  so  un- 
fortunate as  to  follow  in  its  trail,  it  pollutes  streams, 
devastates  young  forests  and  destroys  the  range  by 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  227 

over-pasturing.  It  will  indeed  be  a  happy  day  for 
all  this  region  when  the  land  is  divided  up,  owned 
or  leased  by  the  cattle  and  sheep  owners  and  the  era 
of  destruction  of  that  beautiful  land  ends  and  re- 
construction begins  again.  It  is  a  short-sighted  pol- 
icy of  our  National  Government  that  permits  ranges 
to  be  devastated  and  refuses  leases  that  would  tend 
to  preserve  them  and  thus  enrich  all  the  community. 

MONTANA,  WYOMING  AND  THE  DAKOTAS. 

These  regions  possess  a  distinct  character  and 
have  a  type  of  sheep  husbandry  of  their  own.  They 
are  characterized  by  very  wide,  well-grassed  pla- 
teaus or  plains,  somewhat  destitute  of  trees  or  brush 
and  sometimes  devoid  of  hills,  canyons  or  natural 
shelter.  The  climate  is  much  milder  than  it  would  be 
in  a  similar  latitude  in  the  eastern  states,  and  while 
very  low  temperatures  are  often  reached  in  winter, 
sometimes  with  occasional  blizzards,  yet  there  are 
seldom  deep  or  long-lying  snows,  and  the  abundance 
of  grass  renders  it  easy  for  the  flocks  to  find  sub- 
sistence. The  grasses  on  these  plains  seem  not  so 
fattening  as  upon  the  mountains  of  Utah  and  Idaho, 
but  are  more  abundant  than  those  of  regions  to  the 
southward  and  produce  a  fine  class  of  sheep.  In 
this  region  are  found  the  larger  types  of  Merinos, 
with  often  an  infusion  of  Cotswold  or  Lincoln  or 
Leicester  blood,  while  mutton-bred  rams  of  all  types 
are  used  to  produce  market  lambs.  Sheep  do  not 
permanently  injure  the  grasses  of  this  region,  and 
indeed  when  grazed  with  judgment,  not  to  over- 


228  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

stock,  the  range  is  often  benefited.  In  fact,  some 
progressive  ranchmen  make  it  a  practice  to  pasture 
cattle  and  sheep  together  and  find  that  both  thrive. 

PARASITIC  INFECTION  OF  THE  RANGES. 

There  is  sometimes  in  this  region,  particularly  in 
the  Dakotas,  sufficient  humidity  to  make  it  possible 
for  internal  parasites  to  propagate  and  diffuse 
themselves  through  the  flocks.  Grievous  losses  from 
stomach  worms  are  reported  during  bad  seasons 
and  tape  worms  have  worked  havoc  over  much  of  the 
region. 

These  losses,  however,  are  far  less  serious  than 
occur  in  the  states  east  of  the  Missouri  Eiver. 

FUTURE  OF  THE  NORTHERN  PLAINS  REGION. 

This  whole  region  is  destined  to  be,  the  author 
believes,  one  vast  pastoral  expanse,  dotted  with 
sheep  herds  and  given  over  very  nearly,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  other  animals,  to  the  sheep.  It  is  the  one 
part  of  the  United  States  having  abundant  grass, 
admirable  climate  and  soil  capable  of  growing  al- 
most any  breed  of  sheep  in  perfection  and  with  little 
loss  from  parasitic  infection. 

There  is,  too,  the  advantage  of  an  intelligent  and 
progressive  people  embarked  in  the  sheep  industry 
and  they  have  already  shown  by  their  work  in  sup- 
pressing scab  over  large  parts  of  this  region  what 
they  can  and  will  accomplish. 

These  plains  do  not  produce  as  early  or  as  fat 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES 


229 


230  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

lambs  as  the  mountains  southwest  of  them,  but  very 
superior  feeding  lambs  come  from  these  ranges. 

There  was  once  small  preparation  made  for  win- 
ter feeding  in  this  region.  There  is  today  a  great 
deal  of  hay  being  put  up,  both  of  native  and  alfalfa 
sorts.  When  snow  is  deep  "snow  plows "  are  used, 
which  make  bare  strips  along  which  the  flocks  feed. 
Sometimes  corn  is  fed  scattered  on  the  ground.  In 
some  parts  of  this  country  the  summer  and  winter 
ranges  are  distinct,  the  flocks  climbing  into  the 
mountains  during  the  heated  season  and  relieving 
the  range  of  their  presence ;  in  other  parts  the  moun- 
tains are  too  remote  and  the  sheep  use  nearby  parts 
of  the  range  for  both  summer  and  winter  grazing. 

Except  on  farms  in  the  East  there  is  no  other  part 
of  the  United  States  where  much  increase  in  num- 
bers of  sheep  kept  can  be  made.  Here  double  the 
numbers  now  kept  may  be  and  some  day  doubtless 
will  be  kept  when  the  cattlemen  turn  sheep  breeders. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  RANGE  EAMS. 

The  "buck  herd"  is  a  necessary  institution  upon 
the  range,  and  often  a  troublesome  proposition  it  is. 
There  are  usually  kept  about  30  rams  to  the  thou- 
sand ewes,  though  some  growers  use  a  larger  num- 
ber. Various  methods  are  adopted  to  keep  these 
rams  between  breeding  seasons.  They  are  some- 
times pastured  in  a  fenced  pasture  and  corralled  at 
night  to  keep  them  from  coyotes.  Sometimes  they 
are  herded  where  there  are  enough  of  them  on  a 
ranch  to  make  a  herd,  and  he  must  indeed  be  an 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  231 

active  and  careful  herder  who  will  lose  none  of 
them,  since  as  fall  days  come  on  their  instinct  leads 
them  to  roam  in  search  of  ewes. 

Often  several  ranches  will  combine  their  forces 
and  put  all  the  rams  together  in  one  herd.  Others 
will  allow  the  rams  to  run  with  the  ewes  during  win- 
ter and  spring,  separating  them  in  summer  when 
there  might  be  danger  of  too  early  matings. 

Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  put  the  rarns  in  a 
wether  herd,  though  wether  bands  are  not  nearly  so 
common  as  they  once  were  and  many  ranchers  keep 
none  at  all,  selling  off  all  wether  lambs  or  at  most 
keeping  them  only  till  yearlings  past. 

WHEKE  THE  KAMS  COME  FROM. 

The  source  of  supply  of  range  rams  is  principally 
from  large  growers  of  rams  situated  in  various 
parts  of  the  range  country  and  in  the  valleys  of 
California  and  Utah.  Eastern  Oregon  produces 
thousands  of  magnificent  rams  mainly  of  Merino 
blood,  approaching  the  Eambouillet  type  or  purely 
of  that  blood.  California  sends  many  high-class 
Merino  rams  to  the  ranges.  Utah  and  Idaho  grow 
Merino,  Cotswold  and  Hampshire  rams  by  thou- 
sands with  lesser  numbers  of  other  mutton  breeds. 
Wyoming  grows  Merinos,  Cotswolds,  Leicesters  and 
Hampshires. 

Eange-bred  rams  are  most  serviceable  on  the 
range,  having  learned  how  to  live  there  and  being 
more  muscular  and  hardy  than  eastern  farm-grown 
sheep.  There  is,  however,  a  steady  stream  of  the 


232  SHEEP   FARMING   IN    AMERICA 

best  bred  sires  from  eastern  stud  flocks  going  to 
reinforce  the  blood  of  the  mountain  stud  flocks.  The 
day  seems  past  when  large  numbers  of  eastern 
farm-grown  rams  will  be  used  on  common  range 
herds  since  the  western  rams  are  in  fairly  abundant 
supply  and  are  more  efficient. 

THE  BBEEDING  SEASON. 

On  the  range  rams  are  turned  in  usually  to  bring 
the  lambs  in  late  May  or  June.  It  is  disastrous  to 
lamb  down  before  the  herd  is  settled  on  good  grass 
and  where  it  may  remain  for  some  weeks  with  little 
driving.  There  is  not  the  objection  to  late  lambing 
on  the  range  that  there  is  on  the  farm,  since  the 
danger  of  parasitic  infection  is  escaped  in  the  range 
flock.  This  is  principally  from  two  causes:  first, 
that  the  soil  is  usually  too  dry  to  permit  the  germs 
to  develop  upon  it,  and  second,  that  the  sheep  are 
moved  often  and  seldom  return  to  graze  over  the 
same  ground  before  an  interval  of  weeks,  months  or 
a  year. 

VIGOK  OF  EWES  AND  LAMBS. 

It  is  astonishing  to  see  how  little  difficulty  range 
ewes  have  in  passing  through  the  perils  of  lamb- 
birth.  There  seems  seldom  a  case  of  wrong  presen- 
tation and  often  not  one  ewe  is  lost  from  a  thousand 
at  lambing  time. 

Then  the  lambs  seem  endowed  with  remarkable 
vigor  at  birth  and  not  one  of  a  thousand  but  will 
get  up  and  find  its  mother's  maternal  fount  without 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  233 

aid  from  the  shepherd.  Indeed  this  is  fortunate, 
seeing  that  he  is  generally  remote  from  yards  or 
fences,  and  to  catch  a  range  ewe  is  commonly  a  work 
of  some  difficulty. 

It  is  a  lesson  to  the  eastern  farmer  to  see  the  re- 
markable viability  and  vigor  of  these  range-born 
lambs,  being  an  illustration  of  Nature's  way  of 
management  to  promote  vigor  and  reproduction. 

THE  BUSY  SHEPHERD  AT  LAMBING  TIME. 

A  good  shepherd  will,  however,  be  busy  at  lamb- 
ing time,  for  there  are  many  little  things  to  occupy 
his  attention  then.  One  of  the  most  essential  is  to 
observe  the  ewes  with  spoiled  udders  and  those  hav- 
ing imperfect  udders,  made  so  perhaps  by  careless 
shearers  who  cut  off  the  ends  of  the  teats.  These 
lose  their  lambs  and  should  be  caught,  examined  and 
marked  so  plainly  that  they  can  never  escape  the 
eyes  of  the  master,  when  next  the  flock  passes  the 
assorting  chute. 

THE  COYOTE. 

Then  there  is  the  coyote  pest.  The  coyote  is  a 
small  wolf,  not  much  larger  than  a  big  fox,  but  hav- 
ing a  voracious  appetite  for  lambs.  To  combat 
coyotes  a  number  of  methods  are  used,  and  all  fail 
if  persisted  in,  since  the  coyote  is  one  of  the  most 
cunning  beasts  of  prey  in  the  world.  Strychnine 
placed  in  carcasses  found  dead  kill  a  good  many, 
but  some  coyotes  learn  to  avoid  strychnine.  The 
watchful  shepherd  gets  a  chance  to  shoot  one  now 
and  then.  Occasionally  a  coyote  may  be  trapped. 


234  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

And  greyhounds,  or  rather,  special  hounds  bred  for 
the  purpose,  having  the  conformation  of  the  grey- 
hounds with  more  size  and  better  fighters,  catch 
some  of  them. 

At  lambing  time,  however,  coyotes  assemble, 
scenting  a  feast.  Then  the  shepherd  cannot  avoid 
letting  his  flock  spread  over  quite  an  area  of  range 
since  to  crowd  the  ewes  close  would  be  sure  to  make 
many  orphan  lambs.  It  helps  to  build  fires  about 
at  various  points,  as  though  there  were  numerous 
camp  fires,  and  the  wary  beasts,  scenting  danger, 
keep  their  distance.  To  hang  out  lanterns  is  a  good 
practice,  also.  To  patrol  the  flock  almost  ceaselessly 
with  rifle  in  hand,  firing  it  now  and .  then,  is  the 
method  most  effective,  and  this  is  usually  adopted 
by  careful  shepherds.  It  is  necessary  at  this  time 
to  have  help  if  available,  and  two  or  three  men  may 
keep  themselves  usefully  employed  about  the  lamb- 
ing flock. 

"TRIMMING"  THE  LAMBS. 

Lambing  lasts  usually  only  a  week  or  two  on  the 
range,  since  the  rams  are  not  put  in  till  late  and  the 
ewes  soon  come  in  heat  and  conceive. 

After  the  lambs  have  become  strong  they  are  ear^ 
marked,  docked  (unless  they  are  to  go  to  market, 
in  which  case  their  tails  are  sometimes  left  long), 
and  castrated. 

They  grow  very  rapidly  if  well  born  on  good 
range.  The  shepherd  has  now  some  compensation 
for  his  pains  and  anxieties.  His  duties  are  com- 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  235 

paratively  light,  he  has  time  to  keep  a  neat  camp, 
to  hunt  a  little  for  grouse  or  deer,  and  the  flock 
itself  is  a  source  of  great  pleasure,  if  he  is  more 
than  an  indifferent  hireling.  In  the  evenings  when 
the  ewes  have  assembled,  perhaps  on  the  slope  of 
some  ravine,  the  lambs  will  disengage  themselves 
from  the  flock,  and  withdrawing  a  little  way  will  race 
up  and  down  in  mobs,  a  fuzzy  flood,  undulating  over 


A    SHEEP    WAGON    ON    THE    RANGE. 


the  ground.  Again  some  belligerents  will  square 
off  and  fight  mock  fights,  butting  by  twos  and  threes 
until  one  decides  that  too  rough  a  sport.  Again 
there  will  be  a  game  of  leap  frog,  or  "follow  your 
leader, "  and  strings  of  lambs  will  race  up  over 
banks  and  rocks  and  jump  stiff-legged  down  the 
other  side. 

After  a  time  some  old  ewe,  feeling  a  pressure 
within  her  udder,  will  disengage  herself  from  the 


236  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

rest  and  coming  to  the  open  will  call  anxiously  for 
her  lamb.  As  though  a  miracle  some  lamb  will  stop, 
listen,  cease  to  play  and,  answering  with  a  bleat, 
will  come  scampering  across  the  ravine  to  her  to  get 
his  evening  meal. 

Curiously  enough  the  ewe,  though  she  has  seen 
him  a  thousand  times,  refuses  to  believe  that  he  is 
her  rightful  offspring  until  she  has  applied  her  in- 
fallible test,  her  nose.  Scent  tells  her  it  is  her  own 
darling  child,  and  she  tranquilly  allows  him  to  milk 
her  dry. 

SHEAEING  ON  THE  KANGE. 

Shearing  on  the  ranges  occurs  at  different  sea- 
sons, according  to  the  conditions  and  character  of 
the  country.  Usually  on  southern  ranges  it  is  be- 
fore lambing;  at  railway  stations  where  the  wool  is 
readily  shipped  away.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
ewes  are  shorn  upon  their  summer  range,  they  may 
be  shorn  after  lambing. 

The  shearers  are  roving  groups  of  men,  as  needs 
must  be,  possessed  of  iron  muscles  and  great  deft- 
ness of  hand.  A  good  shearer  will  average  100 
sheep  a  day,  for  which  he  gets  from  seven  to  twelve 
cents  per  head.  Nor  must  eastern  shearers  console 
themselves  that  these  men  do  exceptionally  rough  or 
careless  work;  they  shear  on  the  average  quite  as 
well  as  the  common  shearers  of  the  eastern  states. 
Nor  are  their  sheep  as  easily  shorn  as  the  general 
run  of  farm  sheep  in  the  East.  Many  a  careful  man 
has  laid  the  foundation  of  his  fortune  by  shearing 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  237 

sheep  on  western  ranges.  An  old  friend  of  the 
writer,  now  known  and  honored  throughout  all  that 
mountain  region  and  one  of  the  largest  sheep  own- 
ers, began  ranch  life  as  a  shearer  on  California 
ranges.  He  now  owns  probably  50,000  sheep  of  his 
own.  There  are  now  a  good  many  plants  where  ma- 
chine shears  are  in  operation  and  their  number  is 
increasing;  nevertheless  there  are  many  situations 
where  the  old  hand  shears  will  continue  to  be  used. 

DIPPING. 

Dipping  on  the  range  should  be  a  regular  yearly 
or  semi-annual  practice.  When  it  can  be  done  it 
should  follow  shearing.  Another  practice  is  to  dip 
when  the  lambs  are  weaned  in  the  fall.  The  dipping 
is  done  in  a  rapid  manner  by  means  of  very  long 
tanks  or  swimming  vats,  through  which  the  sheep 
are  crowded  in  rapid  succession.  A  furnace  adja- 
cent, with  boilers,  heats  and  cooks  the  dip  used. 
Several  thousand  sheep  are  dipped  in  a  day,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  plant.  The  dip  most  used  is 
lime  and  sulphur,  which  is  certainly  when  rightly 
compounded  an  efficient  scab  destroyer. 

The  writer  when  engaged  in  sheep  ranching  on 
the  hills  and  mesas  of  Utah  did  not  use  this  dip, 
since  it  is  injurious  to  the  fleece  and  seemed  not  to 
eradicate  the  disease,  but  used  instead  one  of  the 
dips  prepared  from  coal  tar,  using  it  strong  and  hot, 
and  entirely  eradicated  scab  from  his  range,  so 
that  it  did  not  again  reappear  during  his  occupancy 
of  it.  There  is  no  doubt  that  scab  can  be  entirely 


238  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

banished  from  the  ranges  if  men  can  be  educated 
to  it,  and  have  instilled  within  them  a  living  con- 
science that  will  lead  them  to  do  their  plain  duty 
toward  themselves,  their  flocks  and  their  neighbors. 
The  obstacle  to  complete  scab  eradication  is  the 
ignorance  and  criminal  indifference  of  the  lower 
class  of  sheep  owners,  and  the  abettors  of  these 
criminals  are  often  the  state  inspectors,  who  very 
often  make  of  inspection  a  farce  and  give  to  their 
friends,  or  to  others  for  a  consideration,  clean  bills 
of  health  when  scab  is  really  widespread.  To  give 
them  the  benefit  of  a  doubt,  however,  these  inspect- 
ors very  often  would  not  be  able  to  recognize  a  case 
of  scab  were  they  to  see  it  except  in  the  last  stages. 
There  is  growing,  however,  a  healthy  sentiment,  and 
sooner  or  later  the  neighboring  ranchmen  will  them- 
selves take  it  upon  'them  to  see  that  scab  is  eradi- 
cated from  their  district  and  compel  the  indifferent 
to  clean  their  flocks  in  self-defense.  That  done  a 
great  and  unnecessary  expense  will  be  saved,  since 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  dip  so  often,  only  ticks 
being  to  combat,  and  a  heavy  cloud  of  apprehension 
will  be  removed  from  the  sheep  owner  's  mind  and 
the  shepherd's  as  well. 


There  is  in  the  minds  of  the  public  a  deep-seated 
prejudice  against  the  range  shepherd,  the  "sheep 
herder,  "  and  he  is  often  regarded  as  being  an  ignor- 
ant, -lazy,  and  generally  degraded  individual.  There 
is  doubtless  here  and  there  a  man  of  that  sort  en- 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES 


239 


gaged  in  herding  sheep,  but  in  the  main  the  herders 
are  men  of  character  and  intelligence.  Their  work 
develops  within  them  quite  different  characteristics 
from  those  developed  in  the  man  who  herds  cattle, 
the  "vaqueros"  who  do  their  work  on  horseback. 

The    shepherds    acquire    patience,    thought    and 
faithfulness.    They  develop  endurance  and  stoicism. 


LINCOLN    SHEARLINGS. 

Lacking  the  dash  of  the  cowboys,  they  have  greater 
capacity  for  enduring  discomfort  and  fatigue. 

There  are  every  year  wonderful  things  done  on 
the  sheep  ranges  by  these  faithful  herders.  Storms 
come  and  blizzards  blow  and  sometimes  there  is  no 
shelter.  Then  the  sheep  cannot  be  restrained  but 
drift  aimlessly  before  the  blast.  Then  the  herders 
forsaking  their  tents  and  the  comfort  and  shelter 


240  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

to  be  found  therein  follow  the  sheep,  striving  to 
keep  them  together  and  if  possible  to  lead  them  at 
last  to  a  safe  shelter,  perhaps  among  pines  or  be- 
hind protecting  cliffs  and  hills. 

Oftentimes  these  storms  endure  for  several  days 
and  the  shepherd  may  fincf  no  refuge  nor  help  until 
at  last  he  is  overcome  with  weariness  and  cold  and 
lies  down  in  the  snow  for  rest.  Here  he  is  found, 
sometimes  yet  alive,  and  more  often  frozen  to  death. 
There  is  hardly  a  winter  that  there  are  not  a  num- 
ber of  herders  lost  in  storms  and  there  have  been 
single  storms  that  counted  their  dead  by  scores. 
The  writer  knows  one  'old  man,  a  fine  herder  he  is, 
who  had  been  found  buried  in  a  snowdrift  beside 
his  flock,  miles  from  the  camp,  so  frozen  that  he  lost 
all  the  fingers  of  both  hands,  only  one  thumb  re- 
maining. This  old  man,  after  the  terrible  experi- 
ence, calmly  resumed  his  occupation,  and  even  man- 
aged to  live  alone  and  make  camp  in  his  crippled 
condition. 

Men  of  foreign  birth  often  make  excellent  herders 
for  the  range  country.  Germans  excel,  Portuguese 
are  reputed  good  herders,  Andalusians  have  a  repu- 
tation in  parts  of  California,  a  Chinaman  has  been 
known  to  become  a  skilled  shepherd,  and  Mexicans 
have  their  virtures,  among  them  a  doglike  fidelity, 
though  they  are  not  reputed  so  daring  and  resolute 
in  time  of  stress  as  men  of  northern  climes.  And 
now  and  then  a  lad  of  American  stock  excels.  Scots 
are  found  everywhere  among  them,  and  everywhere 
in  the  lead,  having  a  heritage  of  sheep-keeping  an- 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  241 

cestry  and  tradition  that  differentiates  them  from 
men  of  other  nationalities. 

UPS  AND  DOWNS  OF  THE  BUSINESS. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  range  sheep  industry 
has  such  remarkable  ups  and  downs.  There  will  be 
a  series  of  years  when  flocks  on  the  ranges  make 
their  owners  very  large  profits.  As,  for  instance,  if 
a  thousand  ewes  cost  the  owner  $3,000  and  thirty 
rams  will  cost  maybe  $300  more.  The  expense  of 
keeping  them  will  vary  greatly,  but  may  be  as  low 
as  60  to  75  cents  per  head,  or  say,  $772.50.  It  has 
been  known  that  the  thousand  ewes  would  drop  and 
rear  a  thousand  lambs,  but  cutting  this  down  to 
850,  they  sometimes  sell  for  as  much  as  $3  each  on 
the  range,  or  $2,550.  Then  the  fleeces  have  sold  re- 
cently for  more  than  a  dollar  per  head,  or  $1,030 
more,  leaving  a  paper  profit  of  $2,807.50  on  an  in- 
vestment in  sheep  of  but  $3,000. 

However,  as  there  will  needs  be  some  ewes  die 
and  rams  to  be  replenished,  we  can  take  off  the 
$807.50  to  put  with  the  herd  and  still  leave  a  nice 
dividend. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  times  are  good  and  sheep 
prices  high  the  wary  operators  are  willing  to  sell, 
and  men  with  moderate  or  small  amounts  of  capital 
buy,  giving  mortgages  on  all  they  possess  for  se- 
curity. Thereafter  (and  oft-times  soon)  things  hap- 
pen! Wool  declines  in  price,  lambs  go  begging, 
hard  seasons  come  and  the  men  find  themselves 
often  involved  in  absolute  ruin.  It  is  related  dur- 


242  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

ing  the  last  slump  in  sheep  values,  about  1894,  in 
Texas  a  rancher  started  to  Chicago  with  a  trainload 
of  sheep.  He  got  drunk  in  Kansas  City  and  the 
sheep  went  on  without  him,  sold,  but  net  for  enough 
to  pay  the  freight.  He  therefore  received  a  letter 
from  his  commission  firm  asking  him  to  remit  for 
the  freight,  and  they  in  turn  received  a  telegram 
from  him  saying,  "I  have  no  money.  Am  sending 
on  more  sheep." 

THE  HOPEFUL  OUTLOOK. 

The  writer  believes,  however,  that  the  days  of 
ruinous  prices  for  sheep  are  over.  The  capacity  of 
our  country  to  consume  sheep  has  grown  very  enor- 
mously. The  mutton-eating  habit,  once  formed,  is 
retained.  Mutton  is  indeed  an  economical  meat  to 
buy,  since  in  chops  one  can  buy  small  amounts  more 
easily  than  in  beefsteaks;  thus  the  high  price  does 
not  so  much  count.  And  mutton,  especially  lamb 
mutton,  is  consumed  by  the  well-to-do — a  steadily 
increasing  class  in  our  country.  It  is  hard  to  be- 
lieve that  there  will  ever  again  be  such  a  Waterloo 
as  the  last  decade  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
brought.  And  yet  the  writer  wishes  to  prevent  his 
friends  from  rushing  needlessly  to  buy  when  prices 
are  the  highest,  and  to  caution  them  from  following 
the  example  of  the  Texan  and  giving  their  flocks 
away  merely  because  they  are  temporarily  de- 
pressed. 

A  WORK  TO  BE  DOXE. 

There  is  a  great  work  remaining  to  be  done  on 
our  ranges — that  is,  to  build  up  the  quality  of  the 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  243 

flocks  till  they  approach  in  excellence  the  quality  of 
the  flocks  of  New  Zealand  and  Argentina.  The 
writer  once  in  Deptford  Market,  where  the  live  cat- 
tle and  sheep  sent  to  London  from  foreign  ports 
are  slaughtered,  was  shocked  to  see  how  much  better 
were  the  strangers '  sheep  than  those  of  his  brethren. 
Needless  to  say  that  the  good  sheep  brought  much 
the  better  prices. 

To  thus  upbuild  our  range  flocks  needs  a  steady 
inflow  of  the  best  rams,  mainly  of  Eambouillet  and 


AN    ILLINOIS    FEEDING    AND   SHIPPING    YARD. 

the  larger,  smoother  Delaine  type,  and  the  crossing 
of  their  produce  with  rams  of  Lincoln,  Cotswold  and 
Leicester  blood. 

Such  cross-breeding  needs,  to  be  a  success,  great 
study  and  attention,  and  of  course  with  finer  ani- 
mals comes  always  need  for  better  feed  and  care, 
for  provision  of  forage  for  winter  and  cessation  of 
long  and  fruitless  journeyings.  These  things  will 
come ;  the  great  plains  and  grassy  mesas  and  green 
forested  mountains  will  soon  be  covered  with  flocks 


244  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

of  far  better  slieep  than  they  hold  today,  and  by  some 
sort  of  peaceable  division  of  the  ranges  each  rancher 
will  know  where  he  may  graze  and  where  he  may 
save  grass  with  sure  expectation  of  feeding  it  him- 
self in  time  of  need. 

SHEEP   ADVANCE CATTLE    RETREAT. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  that  the  cattle  will 
steadily  retreat  before  the  peaceable  advance  of 
sheep,  since  sheep  are  best  fitted  for  this  region  and 
bring  far  more  profit.  There  will  always  be  room, 
however,  for  some  cattle,  and  they  will  be  found  to 
thrive  alongside  the  sheep  when  the  day  of  intelli- 
gent grazing  and  range  management  has  been 
reached. 

WINTER  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS. 

The  writer  does  not  think  it  worth  while  to  devote 
much  space  to  describing  the  best  methods  of  feed- 
ing native  lambs  in  winter,  for  the  reason  that 
natives  (those  born  on  eastern  farms)  ought  to  be 
fat  and  sold  before  winter  has  set  in.  If  they  are 
not  fat  it  may  very  likely  be  because  they  are  in- 
fected with  some  depressing  parasite,  such  as  stom- 
ach worms  or  nodular  disease,  and  in  that  case  are 
hardly  worth  fattening  at  all.  In  his  own  practice 
he  has  abandoned  feeding  native  lambs  entirely 
since  his  own  lambs,  born  upon  the  farm,  are  fat 
and  sold  before  July,  and  natives  he  buys  give  him 
almost  certain  trouble. 

It  may  be  said,  however,  that  if  one  is  to  feed 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES 


245 


246  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

native  lambs  lie  should  select  them  if  possible  with 
an  eye  to  getting  the  good  ones,  those  in  health. 
These  are  easily  discovered.  They  show  their  health 
by  the  vigor  of  their  action,  the  quickness  of  their 
movements,  the  brightness  of  their  eyes  and  if  ex- 
amined closely  the  pinkness  of  their  skins.  Those 
that  are  drooping  or  that  show  white  chalky  skins, 
signs  of  diarrhea  and  have  dead-looking  fleeces  are 
surely  infected  with  worms  and  if  they  cannot  be 
discarded  they  should  be  treated  before  being  put 
on  feed. 

It  is  not  well  to  turn  feeding  lambs  out  on  pas- 
ture when  they  are  brought  home.  They  will  gain 
little  on  pasture  in  the  fall,  unless  it  be  some  special 
sowed  crop  such  as  rape  or  vetches ;  and  to  turn  the 
lambs  on  the  grass  pastures  usually  results  in  gnaw- 
ing the  grass  to  the  ground  without  putting  on  any 
gain  as  compensation.  It  is  therefore  best  to  put 
them  directly  into  the  feedlot  and  to  begin  feeding 
them  on  dry  hay,  or  other  forage. 

NECESSITY  FOB  DIPPING. 

Earlier  in  this  book  directions  are  given  for  clip- 
ping and  the  reasons  why.  We  will  here  repeat  and 
emphasize  the  fact  that  all  sheep  that  have  been 
shipped  on  railway  cars  or  penned  in  railway  yards 
are  very  apt  to  be  infected  with  germs  of  scab.  If 
they  have  no  scab  germs  they  almost  surely  have 
ticks  on  them.  Ticks  will  fatten  in  the  same  shed 
with  sheep  but  the  sheep  will  suffer.  Ticks  find 
slow  sale  in  the  market  place.  Scab,  if  it  breaks 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  247 

out  during  the  feeding  season,  is  ruinous  and  will 
entail  great  loss  unless  promptly  suppressed.  The 
longer  dipping  is  delayed  the  more  costly  it  is  be- 
cause of  the  greater  amount  of  material  required, 
because  of  the  greater  degree  of  exposure  when  the 
weather  is  colder,  and  because  the  animal  after 
being  on  feed  suffers  a  greater  shock  and  has  a 
worse  set-back  than  when  dipped  on  its  arrival  at 
the  feedyard. 

Lambs  that  are  sent  out  from  the  larger  centers 
of  distribution,  such  as  Chicago,  Omaha  and  Kansas 
City,  are  dipped  under  Federal  supervision  before 
they  leave  the  yards.  This  dipping  should  preclude 
the  necessity  of  further  dipping  at  home  unless  in 
the  case  of  very  well-advanced  cases  of  scab.  Such 
instances  of  diseased  sheep  are  much  less  numerous 
than  they  once  were,  thanks  to  a  rather  determined 
scab  campaign  by  flock-owners  on  the  ranges.  The 
dipping  at  the  Chicago  yards  has  for  several  years 
been  so  thorough  that  the  writer  has  ceased  to  again 
dip  the  lambs  received  from  that  place.  He  feels, 
however,  that  he  is  running  considerable  risk  by  this 
neglect,  since  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  care- 
nessness  or  "graft"  will  send  out  again  strings  of 
imperfectly  dipped  lambs  from  these  very  yards. 
This  has,  at  least,  been  the  history  of  the  past.  One 
winter  some  years  ago  the  writer  trusting  to  the 
clipping  there  received  had  the  distressing  experi- 
ence of  having  to  dip  every  sheep  upon  the  farm  in 
midwinter. 

It  is  safer  then  not  to  rely  upon  the  dipping  at 


248  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

the  yards,  but  to  dip  carefully  upon  arrival,  or  as 
soon  thereafter  as  the  lambs  have  rested  and  recov- 
ered their  strength.  Until  that  time  if  the  weather 
be  good  it  is  wise  to  turn  the  sheep  into  pasture, 
where  they  may  find  water  and  grass  and  rest  suffi- 
cient to  recruit  them.  Then,  as  soon  as  rested,  they 
should  be  dipped  and  put  at  once  into  their  perma- 
nent quarters,  if  they  are  to  be  fed  in  yards  or 
sheds. 

SELECTION  OF  FEEDERS. 

A  visit  to  one  of  our  great  stockyards  is  a  most 
interesting  experience.  There  are  seen  there  such 
a  multitude  of  sheep  of  almost  every  sort  and  de- 
scription. There  are  great  bands  of  fat  western 
wethers,  noble  sheep,  some  of  them  of  an  astonish- 
ing uniformity  in  size  and  character.  They  are 
"strong  almost  as  horses,'7  used  all  their  lives  to 
roaming  over  the  plains  and  mountains.  These  may 
go  for  export,  or  to  the  killers.  They  are  too  fat  to 
feed  and  would  cost  too  much.  And  yet  they  are 
not  so  fat  as  the  sheep  that  come  in  winter  and 
spring  from  the  feedlots.  They  are  just  right  to 
give  the  most  profit  to  the  killers,  with  enough  fat 
and  little  waste. 

Beside  them  will  be  a  band  of  thinner  wethers, 
perhaps  from  a  dried-up  range,  of  fairly  good  qual- 
ity. They,  too,  will  go  to  the  killers,  though  they 
are  almost  thin  enough  to  sell  at  a  farmer's  price. 
The  next  pen  may  show  some  ideal  feeders,  big  and 
strong  and  active,  yet  in  thin  flesh.  Probably  it  did 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES 


249 


w 

§ 


5     > 
B     ^ 


n 

M  >. 

&     H 


s  S 


*r 

"    ^^Rllfl 


25Q  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

not  rain  on  their  range,  or  they  traveled  too  far. 
The  killers  pass  them  by  and  the  feeder  gets  them 
at  a  cent  or  more  off. 

In  the  next  pen  will  be  seen  a  different  type 
altogether,  a  band  of  wild,  scared,  thin,  sharp- 
backed,  weazened  sheep,  looking  as  though  all  the 
plagues  of  Egypt  had  struck  them.  They  are  the 
product  of  an  ignorant  and  stingy  owner,  a  careless 
and  unprofitable  shepherd  and  a  starved  and  over- 
pastured  range,  together  with  a  dearth  of  rain  and 
snow.  No  one  wants  them  and  they  sell  very  low 
indeed.  Sometimes  they  are  great  bargains,  and  if 
carefully  nursed  for  a  few  months  will  lay  on  flesh 
fairly  well  and  being  bought  so  cheaply  will  reward 
well  their  feeder.  There  is,  however,  the  disadvan- 
tage of  having  your  yards  filled  with  stuff  of  which 
you  are  ashamed  till  near  the  last  of  the  feeding  sea- 
son. They  are  more  likely  to  make  money  for  their 
feeder  than  the  good  feeders  because  they  are 
bought  so  cheaply  and  weigh  so  little. 

However,  if  there  is  not  at  home  plenty  of  good 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  or  if  the  feeder  is  not  willing 
to  buy  for  them  wheat  bran  and  a  trifle  of  oilmeal,  if 
they  must  be  fattened  on  corn  and  cornstalks  mainly 
it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  of  the  class  that  he  should 
buy.  Emaciation  calls  for  food  rich  in  protein. 
With  plenty  of  early-cut  alfalfa  hay  in  the  mow 
these  thin  sheep  may  bring  profit.  They  are  of  no 
value  for  a  short  feed.  They  require  time  to  first 
restore  their  strength  and  afterward  to  rebuild,  or 
perhaps  build  their  flesh  and  afterward  to  lay  on  fat. 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  251 

Unless  one  can  buy  at  a  low  price  per  pound  it 
is  unwise  to  buy  the  emaciated  ones,  seeing  that  his 
profit  comes  largely  from  a  hoped-for  advance  on 
the  purchase  price,  and  it  costs  money  to  build  flesh 
in  the  feedlot. 

There  is,  however,  another  range  of  conditions  to 
be  considered  when  selecting  our  feeders.  That  is 
the  breeding  of  the  sheep.  Here  is  a  pen  of  very 
heavily  fleeced  wethers,  or  lambs.  They  will  shear 
very  heavy,  but  they  are  not  of  the  best  form.  They 
have  thin  necks  and  drooping  sharp  shoulders  and  a 
look  of  meekness  and  depression.  Shall  we  take 
them?  In  the  next  pen  is  a  lot  with  evidence  of 
mutton  blood  on  the  Merino.  They  are  lighter 
fleeced,  but  stronger.  As  a  rule  the  very  heavily 
fleeced  sheep  are  not  the  best  money-makers.  They 
will  not  eat  so  well  nor  make  so  good  gains.  Nature 
specializes ;  the  food  goes  to  flesh  or  it  goes  to  fleece 
and  oil  in  the  wool.  Large,  strong,  moderately  well- 
wooled  sheep  feed  best — a  little  too  much  wool  will 
not  hurt.  It  is  only  the  exceedingly  heavy  fleece  that 
is  to  be  avoided. 

Now  visit  the  lamb  pens.  The  wethers  have  run 
very  even  and  have  required  little  assorting.  The 
lambs  are  even  also,  but  there  is  with  them  a  few 
culls  so  that  the  buyer  for  the  great  packers  usually 
reserves  the  right  to  discard  10,  20,  30,  or  maybe 
more  of  each  lot.  These  are  after  a  time  thrown 
together  probably  into  a  load  of  feeders.  The  lambs 
are  in  character  about  what  the  wethers  were, 
though  they  have  suffered  more  in  transit  and  are 


252  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

not  so  strong.  Again  we  see  the  bidders  bidding 
high  for  the  tops.  Then  goes  up  a  sigh  as  you  re- 
linquish them,  and  you  look  on  down  the  line.  Ah ! 
Here  are  the  beauties!  They  are  from  Merino 
mothers,  evidently,  and  their  sires  were  Shrop- 
shires,  or  maybe  Lincolns  or  Cotswolds  and  they 
are  small  and  in  rather  thin  flesh,  so  there  is  a 
chance.  They  have  been  born  late  and  their  tops 
have  been  selected  and  sold,  these  younger  ones  re- 
maining. 

If  we  get  them  we  have  done  well.  They  will 
grow  and  fatten  admirably  and  be  our  pride  and  joy 
all  through  the  feeding  season.  When  fat  they  will 
command  the  top  price.  If  we  buy  them  we  will  take 
350  (which  fills  a  car)  or  maybe  700  or  1,050,  and 
we  may  need  to  buy  some  smaller  lots  to  make  the 
number  come  out  even. 

But  hold!  Those  lambs  were  after  all  priced 
pretty  high,  and  here  are  some  lively  little  fellows, 
not  so  well  bred,  quite,  but  yet  giving  evidence  of 
good  blood.  They  are  late  born  and  small,  pretty 
thin,  too,  weighing  less  than  50  pounds.  What  of 
them?  It  depends  upon  what  is  stored  at  home  in 
the  barn.  If  there  is  abundance  of  good  alfalfa,  if 
there  are  silage  and  perhaps  roots,  and  loving  care 
and  generous  shelter  and  long  time,  take  them! 
They  are  the  best.  But  if  the  feeding  season  must 
be  short,  if  there  is  little  clover  or  alfalfa,  take  the 
other  lot. 

And  here  is  yet  another  sort.  They  must  have 
come  from  a  terrible  range  where  grief  has  been 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  253 

their  constant  portion.  They  are  miserably  thin  and 
weak  and  were  ill-bred  at  the  beginning.  Their  one 
redeeming  feature  is  that  they  weigh  little  and  will 
be  sold  for  a  very  small  price  per  pound.  Shall  we 
venture  to  buy  them?  That  also  depends  upon  the 
furnishings  at  home.  Many  of  them  may  die  before 
they  gain  enough  strength  to  enable  them  to  go  on 
and  gain.  They  will  require  a  long  feeding  period. 
But  when  they  are  fat  they  will  sell  for  nearly  as 
much  as  the  best-bred  lambs  in  the  market.  There 
is  that  peculiar  side  to  the  lamb  trade:  the  light 
lambs  of  part  Mexican  type  when  rightly  fed  sell 
well.  So  if  we  have  the  feed,  the  kindness  and  com- 
forts at  home,  we  may  venture  to  take  even  these 
weaklings.  But  let  us  beware  of  them  if  we  propose 
to  " rough  them"  or  try  to  hasten  them  along  by  a 
short  period  of  heavy  feeding. 

Here  is  yet  another  opportunity.  In  these  small- 
er pens  are  a  lot  of  thin  natives,  from  some  near- 
by state.  They  are  big  enough,  but  their  lack-luster 
eyes  and  sunken  wool  and  general  air  of  discourage- 
ment speak  surely  of  an  internal  revenue  depart- 
ment held  under  the  rule  of  predatory  parasite 
worms.  If  these  lambs  had  been  in  health  they 
would  have  been  fat  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  and 
the  killers  would  have  taken  them  in.  Avoid  them 
unless  you  understand  treating  them  and  eradicat- 
ing the  worms.  Thin  western  lambs  do  not  often 
have  these  parasites  because  on  their  drier  ranges 
the  diseases  do  not  lodge  nor  spread.  And  yet 
lambs  from  some  of  the  more  eastern  ranges,  in  the 


254  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

Dakotas,  Nebraska  and  occasionally  from  Montana, 
come  now  and  then  infected.  Before  you  buy  these 
thin  lambs  look  at  their  skins.  If  they  are  chalky 
pass  them  by. 

Here  are  ewes.  This  band  of  old  ewes,  in  thin 
flesh,  show  evidences  of  fairly  good  breeding.  They 
have  a  motherly  look,  too.  We  find  that  we  can  buy 
them  cheaply.  What  can  we  do  with  them? 

Let  us  look  first  at  their  teeth.  Ah,  I  thought  so ! 
A  large  number  of  them  have  lost  their  front  teeth. 
This  means  two  or  three  things.  It  accounts  for 
their  being  sent  from  range  to  market.  They  have 
been  culled  out  because  they  no  longer  could  sub- 
sist well  on  the  tough  grasses  and  herbage  of  the 
range.  It  accounts  mainly  for  their  emaciation. 
And  it  means  to  you :  Am  I  in  position  to  take  good 
care  of  these  old  ewes?  These  ewes  may  not  be 
too  old  to  make  a  good  recovery  under  favorable 
conditions;  they  may  even  drop  a  strong  crop  of 
lambs  and  nourish  them  well,  but  they  must  eat 
more  costly  food  than  ewes  that  have  their  teeth. 

They  ought  to  have  bran,  oats,  shelled  corn  and 
early-cut,  tender  hay.  But  they  are  for  sale,  and  at 
a  low  price.  If  it  is  early  enough  so  that  we  can 
breed  them  to  good  rams  we  may  do  this ;  take  them 
home  and  at  once  mate  them  with  the  best  rams  of 
Shropshire,  Southdown,  Hampshire,  Dorset  or 
whatever  we  fancy  that  we  can  get  and  then  carry 
them  along  well,  not  forcing  too  much  till  after  the 
lambs  are  born,  and  after  that  with  judgment  and 
discretion  pouring  into  them  all  the  good  nourish- 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  255 

ing  stuff  that  we  can  get  them  to  consume.  It  will 
astonish  us  how  those  lambs  will  grow,  and  the 
beauty  of  them,  coming  from  these  skinny  old  ewes, 
but  they  may  be  soon  sent  off  fat  to  market  and  the 
mothers  will  have  gained  in  flesh  all  the  time,  and 
in  about  two  months'  more  feeding  will  be  ready  to 
go  after  their  lambs.  This  is  good  practice  and 
only  requires  the  right  combination  of  careful  han- 
dling, with  skill  in  feeding,  warm,  well-ventilated 
barns  and  an  assortment  of  feeds  with  wise  gener- 
osity in  carrying  it  out  to  make  »the  thing  pay.  In 
fact,  this  has  been  done.  One  hundred  ewes  have 
been  bought  in  Chicago  for  $175.  They  have 
dropped  and  raised  90  lambs  that  sold  at  about  10 
to  14  weeks'  of  age  for  over  $5.00  each.  The  ewes 
sheared,  under  this  good  care,  above  7  pounds  each 
and  the  wool  sold  for  25c.  Then  the  ewes  finally 
fattened  and  weighed  112  pounds,  selling  for  5c  per 
pound.  Thus  the  ewe  that  cost  $1.75  in  Chicago 
sold,  with  her  wool  and  lamb,  for  $11.85  in  late 
May.  This  was  an  exceptionally  favorable  result, 
however,  achieved  by  an  assemblage  of  favoring 
conditions  of  low  first  cost,  fairly  good  quality,  good 
sires,  wise  and  generous  treatment  and  a  booming 
spring  market.  Let  the  indifferent  shepherd,  or  the 
one  having  ear  corn  and  timothy  hay,  beware  of 
these  broken-mouthed  ewes;  they  will  undo  him 
every  time.  This  is  one  of  the  first  lessons  to  be 
learned  in  successful  flock  husbandry. 

There  is  danger  that  these  ewes  may  part  of  them 
be  already  with  lamb  to  some  inferior  range  ram. 


256  SHEEP   FARMING    IN   AMERICA 

These  lambs  will  not  usually  fatten  off  at  an  early 
age  and  may  materially  affect  the  result. 

Let  us  digress  here  to  consider  for  a  moment  a 
proposition  having  in  it  great  possibilities  of  profit 
for  the  feeder  and  offering  to  the  rancher  a  ready 
means  of  disposing  of  his  aging  ewe  stuff  without 
too  much  sacrifice.  The  rancher  may  cull  out  his 
aged  ewes  before  they  have  reached  too  decrepit  a 
condition,  discarding  any  that  have  spoiled  udders 
of  defective  teats,  and  putting  them  on  the  best  and 
tenderest  grass  he  can  find.  Put  with  them  good 
blocky  mutton  rams  as  early  as  possible  in  sum- 
mer. He  ought  to  get  a  down  or  Dorset  ram  for 
this  purpose,  since  the  long-wools  do  not  get  lambs 
fattening  best  at  a  very  early  age. 

Then  he  can  sell  the  ewes,  bred,  to  men  who  make 
a  business  of  fattening  winter  lambs,  and  get  a  great 
deal  more  for  them  than  it  has  cost  him  to  give 
them  this  treatment.  The  writer  several  years  ago 
called  the  attention  of  sheep  growers  and  feeders 
to  the  possibilities  of  this  practice  and  it  has  already 
been  begun  in  a  small  way  with  the  probability  that 
the  practice  will  become  more  common  as  the  ad- 
vantage becomes  known,  and  especially  as  western 
sheep  ranching  narrows  down  to  a  state  of  settled 
practice  of  good  methods. 

The  age  when  a  ewe  should  be  discarded  varies 
considerably  with  the  breed  and  also  with  the  dis- 
trict where  she  is  kept  and  the  manner  of  keeping. 
In  England  among  the  Dorset  breeders  it  is  the  cus- 
tom to  take  three  or  four  crops  of  lambs  by  a  Dorset 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  257 

ram,  then  to  breed  them  to  a  down  (Hampshire, 
Shropshire  or  Sussex),  and  sell  them  in  lamb  to  go 
away  to  men  who  make  it  a  practice  to  buy  these 
ewes,  grow  from  them  one  or  two  crops  of  lambs 
and  send  them  fat  to  market.  In  America  it  can 
hardly  be  said  that  there  is  any  established  system 
anywhere,  and  the  more  usual  method  is  simply  to 
continue  to  use  the  ewe  so  long  as  her  teeth  are 
good,  disposing  of  her  then  for  what  she  will  bring. 


A  SHOW  OF  COTSWOLDS. 


There  is  something  to  be  said  for  this  practice, 
though  undoubtedly  when  we  have  settled  down  to 
a  good  and  regular  system  of  management,  when 
we  have  formed  a  habit  of  good  management,  we 
will  turn  off  our  ewes  young  enough  so  that  they 
may  be  finished  easily  into  prime  mutton  and  will 
not  have  become  "  shelly. "  The  number  of  lambs 
that  can  be  taken  from  a  ewe  varies  somewhat  with 
the  breed.  Those  that  mature  quickly  the  sooner 


258  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

lose  their  usefulness.  Merinos  taking  long  time  to 
mature  are  sometimes  productive  for  16  years  or 
more.  Downs  and  Dorsets  are  usually  past  their 
usefulness  at  ten  years.  In  general  it  is  good  prac- 
tice to  discard  ewes  upon  farms  at  about  the  age  of 
six  to  eight  years.  To  return  to  our  yards :  there  is 
a  vastness  about  it  and  a  bewilderment  that  appalls 
the  man  fresh  from  tranquil  fields  where  a  flock  of 
500  sheep  seems  large.  On  some  single  days  there 
will  be  received  at  the  big  markets  as  many  as  35,- 
000,  or  even  more,  and  in  a  single  brief  forenoon 
most  of  them  will  be  sold  and  many  of  them  dis- 
persed, some  to  the  killers  and  some  to  the  dipping 
vat  and  on  cars  again  to  go  out  to  country  feeders. 
It  is  a  confusing  place  to  the  countryman  and  he  is 
wise  to  choose  some  skilled  commission  man  to  go 
with  him  and  make  his  purchases,  helping,  too,  in 
making  selections. 

It  is  not  always  wise  for  the  feeder  to  go  in  per- 
son to  buy  in  the  market,  though  he  should  make  it 
a  point  to  be  there  once  or  twice  a  year  to  study 
types  and  results  of  other  men  if  possible.  Contact 
of  this  kind  with  the  market  is  very  helpful. 

The  advantage  in  leaving  the  purchase  altogether 
to  an  honest  and  capable  commission  man  (there 
are  such  in  most  markets)  is  that  the  commission 
man  may  take  advantage  of  heavy  runs  and  de- 
pressed markets  to  secure  for  the  feeder  his  sup- 
plies at  the  lowest  price.  Naturally  when  the  man 
goes  himself  to  the  market  place  he  desires  to  make 
his  purchase  and  get  away  whether  conditions  seem 


FLOCK  HUSBANDRY  IN  WESTERN  STATES  259 

to  him  right  or  not.  His  impatience  may  therefore 
cost  him  dear. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  set  a  price  that  you  are  will- 
ing to  pay  for  the  class  of  sheep  that  you  decide  to 
feed  and,  carefully  describing  your  wishes,  state  the 
case  to  your  commission  man,  leaving  the  order  with 
him  to  be  filled  when  he  can.  It  may  happen  that 
you  are  too  low  and  your  bid  may  need  to  be  raised, 
or  the  stuff  may  cost  you  less  than  you  had  expected 
to  pay. 

The  feeder  may  if  he  desires  go  in  person  to  the 
ranges  and  make  his  selections  there,  bringing  his 
purchases  directly  home.  Thus  he  will  get  the  best 
and  get  them  home  fresher  than  did  they  lie  around 
in  stockyards  awaiting  purchasers.  The  practical 
disadvantage  of  this,  however,  is  that  on  the  range 
the  buyer  must  pay  the  rancher's  price;  if  the  sheep 
go  on  to  market  he  sets  the  price  himself. 

It  is  especially  desirable  in  buying  on  the  range 
that  the  purchaser  should  take  care  to  weigh  at  least 
a  portion  of  the  stuff  and  make  due  allowance  for 
shrinkage  in  shipment,  else  he  may  buy  very  dearly 
without  being  aware.  In  advising  the  feeder  to  be- 
ware of  thin  native  feeders  the  writer  is  aware  that 
he  is  prejudicing  his  very  subject  and  aim — the 
building  up  of  flocks  of  natives  in  all  the  regions  east 
of  the  great  ranges.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  in  most  of  this  region  food  is  so  abundant,  both 
of  grass  and  grain,  that  almost  any  sheep  in  health 
will  be  fat  when  it  goes  to  the  market,  and  there- 
fore snapped  up  eagerly  by  the  killers,  except  those 


260  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

that  are  parasitic  and  therefore  difficult  to  make 
fat.  He  hopes  and  believes  that  the  day  will  come 
when  this  condition  will  be  overcome  and  sheep  will 
be  found  as  healthy  on  farms  as  on  ranges,  but  even 
then  they  will  go  fat  to  market  instead  of  going  to 
swell  the  supply  of  feeders. 

FEEDING  OF  LAMBS. 

Let  us  now  take  up  in  detail  the  work  of  lamb 
feeding,  having  by  this  time  purchased  our  supply 
of  feeders,  or  having  grown  them  ourselves.  Meth- 
ods of  lamb  feeding  vary  widely  according  to  the 
district  where  they  are  fed.  We  will  consider  the 
several  ways  in  detail. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING. 

PEA  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 

In  the  San  Luis  valley  of  Colorado  a  very  curious 
method  of  fattening  lambs  has  within  recent  years 
grown  to  large  proportions.  This  valley  lies  very 
high,  so  high  indeed  that  alfalfa  does  not  thrive  as 
it  does  elsewhere  in  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the 
West.  But  Nature  evens  up  things  and  here  is 
found  the  natural  home  of  the  field,  or  Canadian, 
pea.  The  soil  and  climate  seem  admirably  suited  to 
the  growth  of  peas.  Indeed  it  is  said  that  nowhere 
else  in  the  world  do  peas  thrive  so  well.  The  soil  is 
somewhat  alkaline;  full,  too,  of  mineral  riches,  and 
the  abundant  irrigation  and  cool  mountain  air  as- 
sure a  good  growth  and  a  very  heavy  fruiting.  The 
methods  of  culture  are  easy  and  simple :  after  being 
drilled  into  the  soil  and  irrigated  (sometimes  with 
cultivation  and  sometimes  without)  they  soon  cover 
the  ground  and  need  no  more  attention.  The  cli- 
mate is  so  dry  that  the  crop  may  stand  sometimes 
without  waste  until  it  is  consumed.  The  harvesting 
is  simple  in  the  extreme.  Lambs  are  bought  and 
turned  in,  where  they  remain  until  the  crop  is  har- 
vested and  the  lambs  are  fat.  There  is  no  need  of 

(261) 


262  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

other  forage  than  the  dried  pea  vines  give,  nor  of 
other  grain  than  the  peas.  Gains  on  this  ration  are 
very  large  and  the  quality  of  mutton  produced  un- 
excelled. The  growth  of  this  new  industry  has  been 
very  rapid  indeed,  since  practically  the  first  efforts 
were  made  in  the  winter  of  1901-1902,  when  about 
3,000  lambs  were  fed,  and  it  is  said  that  in  the  win- 
ter of  1904-1905  160,000  fat  lambs  left  the  San  Luis 
and  adjacent  valleys  of  Colorado.  It  is  probable, 
too,  that  this  is  the  beginning  of  the  industry,  for 
there  are  doubtless  other  valleys  in  Colorado  high 
enough,  cool  enough  and  dry  enough  to  grow  peas 
well,  and  so  of  Utah,  Idaho  and  Wyoming. 

CANADIAN   PEAS   FOR  LAMB   FEEDING. 

The  Canadian  field  pea  is  similar  to  the  common 
garden  pea.  It  has  no  relationship  to  the  southern 
cowpea.  The  Canadian  pea  thrives  during  cool  and 
moist  weather ;  it  grows  a  large  vine  and  sets  freely 
with  peas.  All  animals  relish  peas,  which  are  not 
only  delicious  to  the  taste  but  very  nutritious.  Peas 
are  very  rich  in  protein,  having  in  fact  about  the 
same  composition  as  milk,  minus  the  water.  Peas 
are  easily  digested. 

Not  all  regions  are  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the 
field  pea.  In  the  cornbelt  they  thrive  if  they  can 
be  sown  early  enough,  but  then  they  must  be  prompt- 
ly fed  as  a  soiling  crop  or  else  cured  into  hay.  Oats 
and  peas  mixed  make  a  first-rate  soiling  crop  and 
have  been  much  used. 

Late  sown  peas  in  warm  or  dry  regions  have  little 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  263 

value.  The  great  pea  regions  are  in  Canada,  in 
northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  in 
New  England  and  northern  New  York,  and  now, 
more  recently,  in  the  high  valleys  of  the  Bocky 
Mountains. 

PEAS  IN  THE  SAN  LUIS  VALLEY. 

The  " Sunny  San  Luis"  is  a  wide  and  fertile  val- 
ley about  7,500  feet  high  in  southern  Colorado.  It 
has  a  long,  cold  but  dry  and  sunny  winter,  a  spring 
lasting  for  most  of  the  rest  of  the  year.  The  nights 
are  always  cool  in  the  San  Luis.  The  valley  is  abun- 
dantly irrigated  by  a  peculiar  system.  The  soil  is 
soaked  by  long-continued  furrow  irrigation  till  the 
"sub"  or  underground  water  level  rises  nearly  to 
the  surface.  Thus,  even  in  a  dry  climate,  there  is 
moisture  in  abundance  for  the  coolness  and  mois- 
ture-loving peas. 

The  San  Luis  Valley  was  primarily  devoted  to 
wheat  growing.  Peas  were  first  planted  to  rebuild 
the  depleted  soils.  This  they  did,  and  incidentally 
in  order  to  consume  some  of  them  and  get  rid  of 
them  sheep  were  turned  in.  The  sheep  throve  as- 
tonishingly. When  lambs  were  put  on  the  peas  they 
grew  fat  with  astonishingly  little  care  or  expense. 
Now  lambs  feeding  on  peas  is  a  large  business  in 
the  San  Luis  Valley  each  year. 

The  usual  method  is  to  grow  the  peas  by  sowing 
broadcast  and  letting  them  mature,  turning  in  the 
lambs  in  the  fall,  sometimes  as  early  as  October, 
sometimes  earlier.  The  lambs  gather  the  peas  from 


264  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

the  vines  and  eat  more  or  less  of  the  forage.  The 
fields  are  usually  fenced  and  the  lambs  turned  loose, 
from  500  to  2,000  in  a  lot.  At  night  they  are  usually 
corralled  to  protect  them  from  coyotes. 

When  the  weather  remains  dry  there  is  no  great 
waste  of  peas  by  feeding  in  this  manner.  With 
snow,  however,  there  is  danger  that  the  forage  will 
become  greatly  damaged  and  more  or  less  of  the 
peas  lost. 

It  is  not  an  economical  way  to  utilize  peas  at  best 
because  the  lambs  travel  too  much  in  gathering 
them  and  by  their  restlessness  fail  to  put  on  flesh 
as  they  would  were  they  confined  to  a  small  feed- 
lot.  The  advantage  of  feeding  the  peas  where  they 
grow  is,  however,  twofold.  There  is  saved  all  the 
labor  of  harvesting  them  and  the  manure  is  scat- 
tered as  it  is  made  and  thus  the  field  is  enriched. 
Where  labor  is  scarce  and  dear  as  it  often  is  in  Colo- 
rado these  are  important  considerations. 

There  is  another  way  that  makes  a  fair  com- 
promise between  harvesting  and  feeding  the  peas 
in  a  yard  and  letting  them  lie  where  they  grow,  that 
is  to  cut  them  with  a  mower  and  cock  them  up  in 
rather  large  cocks,  then  letting  the  lambs  run  to 
them.  It  would  seem  that  this  was  a  good  scheme, 
especially  if  the  lambs  have  a  shepherd  with  a  dog 
so  that  they  may  be  kept  from  running  over  the 
whole  field  at  one  time.  There  would  be  practically 
no  waste  in  feeding  by  this  plan,  especially  as  pigs 
would  follow  the  lambs  and  pick  up  what  they  left 
uneaten. 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING 


265 


266  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

Undoubtedly  the  greatest  number  of  pounds  of 
mutton  could  be  gotten  from  an  acre  of  peas  by  har- 
vesting them  and  stacking  them  as  alfalfa  is  stacked, 
and  feeding  them  in  corrals  as  alfalfa-fed  lambs  are 
fed.  It  would  no  doubt  pay  also  to  feed  some  sup- 
plementary grain  in  troughs,  so  as  to  let  the  lambs 
consume  nearly  all  of  the  pea  forage  and  still  have 
grain  enough  to  make  the  proportion  of  concen- 
trates to  roughness  a  just  one.  In  this  manner 
about  twice  as  many  lambs  can  be  fattened  from 
a  field  of  peas  as  by  the  simple  process  of  leaving 
the  peas  lie  where  they  grow  and  the  lambs  to  har- 
vest them  at  will. 

AMOUNT  OF  LAMB  MUTTON  FROM  AN  ACRE  OF  PEAS. 

The  pea  feeding  industry  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  and 
no  one  knows  exactly  what  can  be  done  with  an  acre 
of  peas.  Undoubtedly  the  greater  number  of  pea 
feeders  fail  to  make  the  most  of  their  opportunities 
because  of  poor  methods.  They  let  the  peas  dam- 
age by  lying  in  the  snow,  or  they  overstock  and 
have  not  enough  peas  to  finish  their  lambs,  or  they 
let  the  lambs  run  off  in  travel  and  lose  flesh  that 
should  remain  on  their  ribs.  Peas  gathered  and  fed 
in  quiet  should  give  about  these  results. 

An  acre  of  peas  may  yield  30  bushels  of  shelled 
peas.  Probably  that  is  above  the  average  yield,  yet 
it  is  not  unusual  for  San  Luis  peas  to  exceed  that. 
A  bushel  of  peas  weighs  64  pounds. 

An  acre  of  peas  in  the  San  Luis  Valley  may  yield 
1,800  pounds  of  shelled  peas.  This  is  doubtless 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  267 

above  the  average,  but  many  surpass  that  yield. 
Peas  are  exceedingly  digestible  when  fed  whole  to 
lambs,  so  it  is  probable  that  3,  or  at  most  3y2  pounds 
of  peas  would  make  a  pound  of  gain,  if  the  forage 
was  good  and  the  conditions  right.  Thus  an  acre 
yielding  1,800  pounds  of  peas  should  make  from  500 
to  600  pounds  of  mutton. 

While  there  is  no  doubt  that  some  careful  feed- 
ers, using  some  supplementary  grain  and  feeding  in 
corrals,  will  reach  this  high  mark,  yet  at  present 
under  the  easy  method  of  turning  the  lambs  directly 
upon  the  peas,  not  more  than  100  to  175  pounds  of 
,lamb  are  secured,  and  about  100  pounds  of  pork 
from  the  pigs  that  follow  the  lambs.  The  death  loss 
from  feeding  peas  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  light. 
The  quality  of  the  mutton  so  produced  is  very  high. 
The  peas  also  greatly  enrich  the  ground  on  which 
they  grow.  The  best  method  of  feeding  these  peas 
would  seem  to  include  putting  on  them  only 
good  lambs,  and  to  put  them  on  as  early  as  the  peas 
are  nearly  mature.  There  will  always  be  a  demand 
for  good  pea-fed  lambs  at  a  premium,  and  the  com- 
moner sorts  of  lambs  should  be  fed  elsewhere. 
There  are  other  regions  where  peas  may  be  grown 
and  fed  with  profit  provided  they  are  harvested  and 
stacked.  There  are  few  places  where  the  winter 
climate  will  permit  feeding  them  on  the  ground 
where  they  grow  as  is  done  in  the  San  Luis  valley. 
But  there  are  many  high  parks  and  mountain  val- 
leys in  Colorado,  Utah,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Montana, 
and  other  western  states  where  peas  thrive  admir- 


268  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

ably  and  only  the  winter's  snowfall  prevents  their 
being  fed  as  readily  as  in  the  San  Luis  Valley.  There 
is  no  better  feed  for  old  ewes,  or  for  lambing  ewes, 
than  peas.  The  whole  plant  has  a  similar  compo- 
sition to  milk,  it  rebuilds  wasted  tissue  and  creates 
new  flesh. 

ALFALFA-FED   COLORADO  LAMBS. 

The  front  range  of  the  Eockies  sends  forth  a 
number  of  refreshing  streams,  creeks  and  rivers, 
from  the  Animas  river  at  Trinidad  up  to  the  Ar- 
kansas in  middle  Colorado  and  the  forks  of  the 
Platte  at  Fort  Collins.  Early  in  the  settlement  of 
Colorado  it  was  learned  that  alfalfa  grew  wonder- 
fully well  on  the  plains,  where,  supplied  with  water 
by  irrigation,  the  difficulty  seemed  to  be  to  use  the 
alfalfa.  Finally  some  man  tried  feeding  it  to  sheep, 
then  to  lambs;  grain  was  fed  with  it.  A  few  car- 
loads of  the  lambs  went  to  eastern  markets;  the 
killers  tried  them  and  pronounced  them  extraordi- 
narily good  and  the  Colorado  lamb  industry  was 
born. 

Colorado  lamb  feeding  has  had  its  ups  and  downs. 
In  the  winter  of  1898-1899  the  feeders  lost  nearly 
all  the  hay  they  put  into  the  lambs,  getting  back 
only  the  manure  and  pay  for  the  corn  bought  in 
Nebraska.  In  other  years  they  have  made  very 
large  profits.  At  intervals  they  have  tried  feeding 
other  things — calves,  wethers,  and  ewes  to  lamb  in 
the  feedlot.  The  wethers  and  calves  are  mostly 
eliminated  now  and  lambs  are  fed  on  an  ever-in- 


WESTERN  LAMB   FEEDING  269 

creasing  scale.  It  is  a  settled  industry,  not  without 
its  risks,  yet  as  certain  of  profit  as  any  feeding 
business  can  well  be. 

Colorado  lambs  are  the  product  of  Colorado  al- 
falfa and  Kansas  and  Nebraska  corn.  There  is 
sometimes  a  little  locally-grown  wheat  or  barley  fed, 
when  it  is  cheap  enough,  but  shelled  corn  and  alfalfa 
form  probably  95  per  cent  of  the  foods  used. 

In  early  days  the  Colorado  feeders  depended  al- 
most altogether  upon  the  lambs  of  New  Mexico  and 
southern  Colorado  for  a  supply  of  feeders.  The 
reputation  of  Fort  Collins'  lambs  was  made  first 
with  these  Mexicans.  In  more  recent  years  lambs 
have  come  there  from  other  regions,  notably  from 
Utah  and  Wyoming.  The  process  of  feeding  lambs 
in  Colorado  is  admirably  simple.  There  are  yards 
built  of  six-inch  boards,  with  cracks  between  them 
wide  enough  to  permit  the  lambs  to  thrust  their 
heads  in  and  eat  between  them.  Hay  is  then  piled 
along  these  fences  right  on  the  ground  (which  is 
usually  dry  in  that  sunny  clime)  and  the  lambs  eat 
it  standing  with  their  necks  through  the  fence.  Two 
or  three  times  a  day  men  go  along  and  throw  the 
hay  up  afresh.  The  hay  is  drawn  from  great  ricks 
standing  in  the  alfalfa  meadows.  Little  of  it  is  ever 
put  in  barns,  which  hardly  exist  in  the  sense  that 
they  are  used  in  the  East. 

Grain  is  fed  in  flat-bottomed  troughs  in  the  yards. 
There  is  often  an  arrangement  of  yards  so  that  one 
may  be  used  as  a  feeding  yard  for  two  or  more  pens. 
In  that  way  the  grain  may  be  put  in  before  the 


270 


SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 


sheep  are  admitted.     When  the  gates  are  opened 
they  come  in  with  a  rush. 

When  first  the  lambs  are  received  they  are  care 
fully  dipped  and  then  given,  usually,  a  preparatory 
course  of  alfalfa  feeding  before  having  any  grain. 
When  they  are  introduced  to  corn  it  is  fed  in  very 
small  amounts,  slowly  and  steadily  increased  until 


HACKS   FOR    FEEDING    GRAIN. 
Photo  from  Wilcox,   1902  Year  Book,   Bureau   Animal   Industry,   U.   S.    Dept.    Agr. 

finally  they  are  eating  about  all  they  desire.  That 
amount  will  be  between  two  and  three  bushels  per 
day  to  the  hundred  head.  It  is  found  best  to  feed 
corn  in  regular  rations  two  or  three  times  a  day 
rather  than  to  use  "self  feeders, "  such  as  are  used 
in  the  Northwest  for  feeding  light  screenings. 
These  self  feeders,  by  the  way,  are  merely  bins  hav- 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING 


271 


ing  troughs  at  the  lower  edges  on  each  side,  with 
narrow  openings  through  which  the  screenings  de- 
scend. 

Very  few  of  the  Colorado  feedyards  have  sheds 
attached  to  shelter  the  lambs.  Little  rain  falls  and 
the  snow  is  light  and  dry.  Windbreaks  are  found 


BOX   RACK   FOR   FEEDING   ALFALFA. 
From   Bulletin  31,    Bureau   Plant   Industry,   U.   S.    Department   of  Agriculture. 

desirable.  Water  is  pumped  by  wind  power  and 
supplied  abundantly  in  troughs,  which  are  kept 
clean. 

Most  of  the  Colorado  lambs  are  sent  to  market 
with  their  fleeces  on.  The  gains  secured  are  excel- 
lent, lambs  weighing  55  pounds  when  put  on  feed 
often  weighing  85  pounds  when  ripe,  and  better 


272  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

gains  are  sometimes  secured.  They  come  to  tHe 
markets  of  Kansas  City,  Omaha  and  Chicago  in  solid 
trainloads,  and  owing  to  their  good  quality  and 
even  ripeness  they  sell  at  the  top  of  the  market. 

There  seems  a  distinct  quality  of  goodness  dif- 
fused through  an  alfalfa-fed  lamb,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  make  as  good  on  any  other  ration.  The  health- 
fulness  of  the  diet  is  attested  by  the  very  great  even- 
ness of  lots  of  alfalfa-fed  lambs,  though  this  is  in 
part  accounted  for  by  the  regularity  and  moderation 
of  the  feeding. 

There  are  other  alfalfa  feeding  districts  in  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska  where  the  business  is  carried  on 
very  much  as  in  Colorado,  having  almost  as  good 
weather,  though  not  usually  as  good  alfalfa.  This 
is  owing  to  the  greater  liability  of  rain  falling  on 
Nebraska  and  Kansas  alfalfa  and  to  the  careless 
methods  of  haymakers  caused  in  part  by  scarcity  of 
labor.  Corn  is  plentiful  in  these  feeding  yards  and 
is  sometimes  fed  with  greater  freedom  than  in  Colo- 
rado, though  without  corresponding  increase  in 
gain.  The  truth  is  that  a  lamb  cannot  be  forced  as 
a  pig  can  by  feeding  an  excess  of  grain;  he  should 
make  a  large  part  of  his  growth  from  coarse  forage, 
and  overfeeding  with  grain  is  a  dangerous  proposi- 
tion. 

Then  there  are  regions  where  men  attempt  to  fat- 
ten lambs  with  wild  prairie  hay  or  sorghum,  with 
corn.  Large,  well-developed  lambs  will  finish  fairly 
well  on  such  rations,  though  at  considerably  greater 
cost  than  when  alfalfa  is  fed. 


WESTERN   LAMB  FEEDING  273 

Prof.  E.  A.  Burnett  of  the  Nebraska  Experiment 
Station  lias  shown  that,  comparing  alfalfa  hay  and 
prairie  hay  with  corn,  the  alfalfa-fed  lambs  made 
52  per  cent  greater  gains  than  the  prairie-hay-fed 
lambs.  The  addition  of  16  per  cent  of  oilmeal  to 
the  grain  ration  of  the  prairie-hay-fed  lambs  in- 
creased their  gain  26  per  cent. 

The  writer  has  often  demonstrated  in  his  own 
practice  that  lambs  cannot  be  fed  with  much  profit 
without  a  large  amount  of  protein  in  the  ration, 
and  alfalfa  or  clover  is  the  best  and  cheapest  car- 
rier of  available  protein. 

In  Nebraska  and  elsewhere  lambs  are  quite  fre- 
quently turned  directly  into  fields  of  standing  corn 
and  permitted  to  do  their  own  harvesting.  Some- 
times rape  is  sown  in  the  corn  at  time  of  last  cul- 
tivation to  add  to  their  supply  of  forage.  Two  to 
four  pounds  per  acre  of  rape  seed  are  sufficient. 
It  is  better  to  let  this  last  cultivation  be  fairly  early 
so  as  to  give  the  rape  a  start.  Should  the  season 
prove  showery  the  rape  will  come  on  and  add 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  feed.  This  plant  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  to  the  sheep  feeder. 

There  are  certain  points  to  be  observed  in  pas- 
turing down  corn  with  lambs.  It  is  not  a  practice 
adapted  to  feeding  very  thin,  light  lambs,  since  they 
require  too  long  a  feeding  season.  It  is  not  a  good 
practice  in  .a  wet  region,  or  on  a  soil  readily 
tramped  into  mud  and  damaged  thereby.  Once  the 
lambs  are  accustomed  to  the  corn  they  should  not 
be  taken  away  from  it  else  they  will  on  return  over- 


274  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

eat  and  die  in  consequence.  Salt  should  be  before 
them  at  all  times. 

The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  one  valuable 
feature  of  this  practice  is  the  cheapness  of  its  exe- 
cution. There  is  certainly  some  wastes,  unless  pigs 
follow  the  lambs,  and  in  some  instances  at  least 
there  is  a  high  death  rate  owing  to  the  impossibility 
of  limiting  the  amount  of  corn  eaten.  However,  as 
a  usual  thing  the  lambs  learn  slowly  to  eat  the  corn, 
finding  it  hard  to  shell,  and  do  not  founder. 

Mature  sheep  are  sometimes  turned  into  the 
cornfields  to  glean  their  own  harvest.  There  is 
probably  more  danger  of  founder  in  old  sheep  than 
in  lambs,  since  they  the  more  readily  begin  to  eat 
the  ears.  It  may  be  said  here  that  it  is  unsafe  to 
turn  native  sheep  in  the  cornfields,  as  being  accus- 
tomed to  corn  they  will  get  too  much  of  the  grain, 
while  their  western  kindred  will  take  more  readily 
to  the  fodder. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  western 
feeders  have  very  great  advantages  in  their  cheap 
and  abundant  forage  and  grain  and  their  mild, 
sunny  climate.  They  achieve  success  by  close  at- 
tention to  details ;  the  lambs  are  fed  with  very  great 
regularity  as  to  time  and  amount.  One  man  will 
feed  2,500  or  more,  so  the  labor  cost  is  light. 

Their  disadvantage  is  in  their  remoteness  from 
market,  entailing  higher  freights,  and  in  the  specu- 
lative character  of  the  western  men  which  leads 
many  of  them  to  jump  from  one  industry  to  an- 
other, feeding  few  lambs  one  year  and  very  many 


WESTERN  LAMB   FEEDING  275 

the  next,  jumping  often  just  at  the  right  time  to  fail 
to  alight  on  their  feet.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in 
Nebraska  and  Kansas  few  farmers  feed  their  own 
grain  and  hay,  preferring  to  sell  to  great  operators 
who  feed  in  central  plants  many  thousands  of  sheep 
and  lambs.  Thus  is  the  manure  lost  to  farms  that 
will  some  day  need  it,  and  mountains  of  richness 
are  heaped  up  outside  of  feeding  corrals  to  prove 
an  embarrassment  to  the  owner.  This  system  is 
wrong  and  invites  disaster.  The  man  who  pro- 
duces the  feed  should  feed  it  at  home.  A  man  can 
afford  to  devote  his  time  to  500  sheep  or  lambs  in 
winter ;  thus  he  has  left  on  the  farm  much  of  the  fer- 
tility taken  from  it  in  crops  and  can  readily  return 
it  to  his  fields.  Feeding  his  own  crops  he  runs 
small  risk  of  loss  in  his  operations. 

FEEDING    MILL    SCREENINGS. 

Minnesota  is  at  present  the  great  state  for  feed- 
ing screenings.  These  screenings  come  from  the 
great  mills  along  the  upper  Mississippi  and  else- 
where. They  contain  a  little  shrunken  wheat,  a 
good  deal  of  weed  seed,  largely  of  pigeon  grass,  and 
bits  of  straw  and  trash.  There  are  many  thousands 
of  tons  of  screenings  available  every  year.  Most  of 
this  material  is  used  by  the  large  operators,  who 
feed  from  a  few  to  many  thousands.  They  gen- 
erally use  sheds  provided  with  self-feeding  bins 
holding  many  bushels  of  screenings.  The  manage- 
ment of  one  of  their  plants  is  admirably  simple :  the 
lambs  are  bought,  usually  of  a  fairly  good  size  and 


276  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

quality,  dipped  and  turned  into  the  sheds,  where 
they  remain  until  fat.  Usually  no  hay  is  fed  or  re- 
quired, the  bulky  nature  of  the  screenings  render- 
ing them  all-sufficient  for  properly  distending  the 
lamb. 

At  one  time  large  profits  ensued  from  feeding 
lambs  on  screenings.  The  millers,  curiously  enough, 
.became  aware  of  this  fact  and  began  steadily  to 
raise  the  price  of  screenings.  As  lamb  prices  ad- 
vanced so  did  screenings,  till  at  this  writing  the 
margin  is  not  large  and  a  bad  year  would  wipe  it 
out  altogether. 

In  Michigan  and  nearby  states  a  great  many 
lambs  are  fed  "salvage  grain ";  that  is,  grain  that 
has  been  through  a  fire  or  become  overheated  in  the 
elevator  bins  by  reason  of  being  stored  in  too  moist 
a  condition.  If  the  salvage  grain  (wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley or  sometimes  even  a  mixture  with  flaxseed  in  it) 
is  heavy,  lambs  will  thrive  very  well  indeed  on  it. 
The  charred  grains  seem  to  be  good  for  the  diges- 
tion and  do  not  weigh  very  much. 

SHEEP  FEEDING  IN  THE  COKNBELT. 

In  the  cornbelt  proper  the  conditions  for  feed- 
ing are  generally  good  so  far  as  abundance  of  food 
is  concerned.  Corn  is  a  staple  and  must  find  a  mar- 
ket. Hay  is  readily  grown,  and  late  experience  has 
shown  that  wherever  there  is  limestone  soil,  or 
sweet  and  fertile  soil,  alfalfa  may  be  grown.  Ked 
clover  is  usually  easily  grown.  Thus  there  is  a 
ready  source  of  food  for  sheep. 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  277 

The  climate  is  another  matter.  Sheep  want  dry 
footing  and  dry  coats.  They  cannot  endure  muddy 
yards  and  wet,  dripping  skies.  Therefore,  before 
we  attempt  to  feed  lambs  we  must  provide  a  some- 
what artificial  climate.  This  is  done  with  shingles 
to  turn  off  the  wet.  Mature  sheep  are  very  often 
fattened  altogether  in  open  yards  and  western 
Merinos  have  fleeces  that  turn  rain  fairly  well,  but 
lambs  in  the  exposure  do  not  thrive  and  it  is  folly 
to  attempt  feeding  them  east  of  the  Missouri  River 
without  some  shelter  from  rain.  North  of  Illinois, 
however,  where  rains  are  infrequent  and  snows 
light  and  dry,  sheds  are  sometimes  dispensed  with, 
but  that  is  really  ouside  the  cornbelt. 

The  character  of  the  barn  or  shed  used  is  not 
essential.  It  may  be  a  simple  roof  open  on  two  or 
three  sides,  to  which  hay  will  be  hauled  on  wagons 
from  ricks.  The  writer  has  such  a  feeding  plant 
and  uses  it  to  good  advantage.  It  may  better  be  a 
barn  of  two  stories,  the  upper  one  stored  with 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay.  On  the  lower  or  ground  floor 
the  lambs  are  fed.  Their  part  should  be  eight  feet 
high  in  the  clear,  all  in  one  large  room,  which  may 
be  divided  as  desired  by  use  of  racks  or  movable 
panels. 

Through  this  room  there  should  be  opportunity 
to  drive  transversely  through  nearly  or  quite  every 
bent  or  space  between  posts.  To  accomplish  this 
doors  must  constitute  the  whole  length,  preferably 
on  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  building,  which 
mav  well  stand  east  and  west. 


278 


SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 


Thus  the  two  sides  will  be  composed  entirely  of 
doors  so  far  as  the  lower  story  is  concerned.  Doors 
cost  little  more  than  ordinary  siding  to  construct. 
These  doors  should  be  divided  transversely  at  a 
height  of  about  four  feet.  The  lower  half  will 
swing  from  the  post  just  as  a  gate  swings,  while 
the  upper  half  will  be  hinged  at  the  upper  side,  and 
raise  up  outwardly.  Thus  the  lower  part  of  the 


SIDE    VIEW    OF  MODEL  SHEEP   BARN,    SHOWING    DOORS. 

door  may  remain  closed  to  restrain  the  sheep,  while 
the  upper  half  is  lifted  to  admit  air  and  light.  ..Thus 
air  may  be  admitted  and  storms  kept  out,  the  out- 
ward swing  of  the  upper  door  throwing  drip  of  rain 
away. 

These  upper  doors  will  in  mild  weather  be  raised 
high  and  left  up.  In  time  of  storm  or  extreme  cold 
they  may  be  closed  on  one  side  or  the  other. 

An  abundance  of  fresh  air  is  absolutely  necessary 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING 


279 


to  the  lamb.     He  will  not  thrive  or  fatten  well  with- 
out it.     He  will  thrive  better  in  the  open  field  than 
in  a  close  foul-smelling,  unventilated  barn  or  shed. 
Nor  does  it  matter  much  after  being  once  on  feed 


CROSS-SECTION  OF  MODEL  SHEEP  BARN,  SHOWING  FRAME. 

whether  the  lamb  barn  is  warm  or  cold.  In  truth 
the  lambs  often  thrive  better  to  have  it  moderately 
cold.  It  is  not  necessary  or  best  to  have  it  warm 
enough  so  that  water  will  not  freeze  within.  If  the 
user  is  uncertain  whether  he  will  remember  to  open 


280  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

these  upper  doors  lie  had  better  not  hang  them  at 
all,  but  leave  the  space  open  instead.  The  cold  and 
snow  that  will  blow  in  will  do  less  injury  to  the 
fattening  lambs  than  the  deprivation  of  air  would  do. 

The  barn  should  have  no  floor  save  the  natural 
earth.  Water  troughs  of  concrete  are  best  and  they 
may  be  built  so  as  to  be  half  within  and  half  outside 
of  the  barn,  on  the  sunny  side.  These  tanks  may 
be  of  large  size,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  stor- 
age tanks,  say  10x12  feet  and  about  18  inches  deep. 
It  is  of  no  use  to  make  a  lamb's  drinking  trough 
very  deep,  and  in  fact  there  is  danger  that  they  may 
drown  in  a  deep  tank,  since  they  will  sometimes 
jump  into  it. 

The  amount  of  room  desirable  in  a  feeding  barn 
is  about  5  square  feet  to  a  lamb  aside  from  the 
racks.  In  practice  one  will  need  about  8  square 
feet  gross,  which  will  give  him  room  for  his  racks. 
To  feed,  then,  a  carload  or  350  lambs,  he  needs  a 
barn  about  36x72  feet.  Some  feeders  crowd  the 
lambs  more  than  that  but  they  will  not  thrive  as 
they  ought  nor  ripen  evenly  unless  all  have  room 
so  that  they  may  eat  at  the  same  time. 

The  next  thing  is  the  feed  rack.  Various  types 
are  in  use  and  all  have  some  good  qualities.  After 
much  experience  with  various  types  the  writer  finds 
this  form  best  (see  illustration).  It  is  made  of  two 
Ix6-inch  boards  spaced  24  inches  apart,  with  ends 
and  a  bottom  of  matched^pine  flooring.  This  makes 
a  shallow  box  or  feed  trough.  At  the  corners  are 
legs  of  2x2-inch  stuff,  40  inches  high.  The  vertical 


WESTERN  LAMB   FEEDING 


281 


slats  are  of  %-inch  stuff  3  inches  wide  and  are 
spaced  6%  inches  apart.  The  top  of  the  box  should 
be  about  12  inches  high.  In  this  rack  may  be  fed 
any  sort  of  grain  or  forage.  The  wide  openings 
between  the  slats  permit  sheep  to  thrust  their  heads 
clear  in  and  there  they  will  stand  quietly  eating 
until  they  have  consumed  the  ration  with  little 
waste,  whereas  if  the  vertical  slats  are  placed  close 
together  the  lambs  will  pull  the  hay  out,  dropping 
it  beneath  their  feet.  This  is  a  cheap  form  of  rack, 
durable,  easily  made  and  as  effective  as  any.  The 


6" 

v 

v 

x 

6 

vo 

T 

0 

* 

rx 

b 

-26 

" 

t'x 

e/ 

_  . 

i  : 

* 

U 

^ 

•^ 

\o" 

116" 

TWO   VIEWS   OF  FEED-RACK. 


length  should  be  to  fit  well  with  the  type  of  barn 
used,  so  that  rows  of  these  racks  will,  when  re- 
quired, make  divisions  or  fit  between  the  posts  of 
the  basement. 

Now,  with  the  feed  racks  in  place,  with  water, 
and  the  mow  above  stored  with  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay,  which  should  have  been  early  cut,  we  are  ready 
for  the  lambs.  First  a  word  about  the  yard.  It 
should  have  in  it  about  one-half  greater  capacity 
than  the  roof  covers,  not  more,  and  if  it  can  be 
sloping  all  the  better.  It  should  be  well  graveled 
with  rather  coarse  gravel,  spread  smoothly.  If  it 


282  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

can  be  concreted  all  the  better,  since  it  will  then  be 
very  easily  kept  clean. 

The  reason  for  having  a  small  yard  is  so  that  it 
may  the  more  readily  be  kept  dry  and  clean,  and 
because  in  a  large  yard  there  is  too  much  waste  of 
manure.  Lambs  in  the  fattening  pen  do  not  need 
much  exercise  and  are  the  better  not  to  have  it. 

Practices  differ  in  regard  to  shutting  lambs  up 
or  letting  them  have  the  run  of  the  yard.  In  Mich- 
igan large  feeders  commonly  put  lambs  in  the  barn 
and  leave  them  there  until  fat.  It  is  unusual  to 
find  them  ever  in  the  yards.  Thus  all  of  the  manure 
is  saved,  the  liquids  as  well  as  the  solids,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  value  of  the  manure  is  in  the  liquids.  I 
cannot  see  that  their  death  loss  is  higher  than  that 
of  men  who  let  their  lambs  run  out  at  will.  I  do 
not  think  it  so  high.  Their  gains  are  as  good  as 
any  and  better  than  one  usually  finds. 

On  eastern  farms  it  is  a  wise  practice  to  turn 
lambs  into  the  yard  only  long  enough  to  allow  the 
men  to  put  feed  in  the  racks,  then  immediately  to 
shut  them  in  until  the  next  feeding  time.  Thus 
treated,  there  will  be  no  disturbance  by  passing 
dogs  or  men;  the  lambs  will  be  always  near  their 
feed  and  will  eat  more  regularly,  and  the  great  sav- 
ing of  manure  will  be  a  source  of  considerable 
profit. 

A  word,  too,  about  hay.  With  timothy  hay  in  the 
mow  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  fatten  lambs. 
Oat  straw  is  as  good,  or  as  bad.  Bright  shredded 
corn  stover  is  a  little  better,  and  when  fed  in  con- 


WESTERN  LAMB   FEEDING  283 

nection  with  abundant  wheat  bran  and  a  little  oil- 
meal  it  will  serve  very  well.  Without  this  extra 
supply  of  protein  shredded  corn  stover  will  not 
profitably  fatten  lambs. 

Now  let  us  bring  the  lambs  home.  They  come 
from  the  cars  half  famished,  though  there  are  sel- 
dom any  dead  ones  among  them.  What  a  sight  it 
is  to  see  them  devouring  the  grass  along  the  road- 
side as  they  go  from  the  station  to  the  farm!  It 
is  impossible  to  hurry  them,  nor  should  one  attempt 
it;  let  them  take  their  time.  When  they  reach  the 
farm  we  will  turn  them  first  into  some  grass  pasture 
where  there  is  water  and  there  they  may  rest  for 
two  days,  supposing  it  to  be  yet  fair  and  dry 
weather.  Then  they  must  be  dipped,  unless  we  are 
willing  to  accept  the  dipping  at  the  yards.  And  at 
once  they  go  to  their  pens  and  are  initiated  into  the 
mysteries  of  barn  life.  We  will  put  about  500  in  a 
pen  or  what  the  barn  holds.  The  writer  feeds  700 
in  one  barn,  which  seems  not  to  be  too  many  for  all 
to  thrive.  There  must  be  racks  enough  so  that  all 
the  lambs  may  find  places  to  eat  at  the  same  time. 

We  fill  the  racks  moderately  full  of  alfalfa  hay 
and  watch  the  lambs  eat  it.  At  first  they  are  timid 
about  going  into  the  barn,  but  soon  they  find  their 
way  about  and  learn  where  the  food  is.  And  then 
how  they  do  eat!  We  will  feed  them  twice  a  day, 
at  the  same  time  each  day,  and  let  them  rest.  The 
water  we  must  watch,  that  it  is  kept  pure  enough 
for  man  to  drink  and  always  in  supply.  Salt  we 
will  give  at  first  by  dissolving  it  in  water  and 


284  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

sprinkling  it  over  the  hay;  it  may  be  put  on  the 
coarse  stems  that  they  leave.  After  doing  this  for 
a  few  days  we  will  find  their  appetite  for  salt  satis- 
fied; then  we  will  fill  a  box  with  salt  in  one  corner 
of  the  barn  and  let  them  have  access  to  it  at  their 
own  will.  But  if  we  could  take  time  and  trouble  to 
put  brine  on  their  hay  all  through  the  feeding  sea- 
son that  would  be  the  better  way,  making  them  eat 
the  coarser  parts  with  relish  and  avoiding  all  dan- 
ger from  getting  too  much  salt.  There  is,  however, 
little  danger  of  that  if  the  lambs  are  first  care- 
fully introduced  to  it  until  their  appetite  is  ap- 
peased, then  given  access  to  it  at  all  times.  On 
Woodland  Farm  it  is  the  custom  to  roll  salt  barrels 
into  the  barn  and  saw  out  two  or  three  staves,  let- 
ting the  sheep  consume  it  as  their  appetite  indicates 
they  should.  But  when  the  writer  fed  his  lambs  in 
person  he  preferred  the  brining  method. 

We  will  feed  no  grain  at  all  .for  the  first  two 
weeks,  unless  the  lambs  chance  to  be  unusually  vig- 
orous and  therefore  able  to  take  it  sooner.  It  is 
wise  to  let  the  lambs  get  their  strength  before  at- 
tempting to  feed  them  grain,  to  which  they  are  not 
accustomed. 

In  some  cases  the  lambs  will  be  so  weak  when 
they  have  found  their  journey's  end  that  it  will  be 
wise  to  strengthen  them  by  feeding  a  little  wheat 
bran  in  connection  with  the  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 
There  is  scarcely  anything  more  readily  digested 
and  strengthening  than  wheat  bran  and  it  seems 
especially  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  lamb.  In 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING 


285 


286  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

truth,  tlie  chief  reason  why  I  am  not  using  more  and 
advocating  it,  is  its  heavy  cost,  now  that  the  dairy- 
men have  learned  that  they  must  have  it. 

In  former  years,  before  they  had  much  alfalfa 
hay  and  when  bran  was  far  cheaper  than  now,  the 
writer  and  his  brother  fed  many  tons  of  it  to  lambs 
with  very  gratifying  results.  They  made  it  profit- 
able to  feed  it,  though  later  when  they  had  abandon- 
ed it  for  alfalfa  hay  produced  on  their  own  farm 
the  profits  of  lamb  feeding  were  greatly  increased. 

The  cost  of  growing  lamb  mutton  in  the  days  when 
timothy  hay,  oat  straw  and  shredded  corn  stover 
were  used  in  connection  with  wheat  bran  and  oilmeal 
for  the  ration,  with  corn,  was  about  $6.25  per  hun- 
dred pounds.  Afterward,  when  the  only  feeds  used 
were  alfalfa  hay  and  ear  corn,  the  cost  dropped  to 
$3.50  per  hundred.  With  hay  at  $8.00,  corn  at  35c. 

There  are  troubles  that  come  to  weak  western 
lambs  upon  their  first  introduction  to  the  eastern 
feedlot.  Sometimes  they  develop  sore  mouths  in  a 
very  contagious  form.  The  remedy  is  to  rub  off  the 
scabs  with  a  corncob  and  cover  the  sore  places  with 
a  little  undiluted  coaltar  sheep  dip.  This  remedies 
the  disorder  in  short  order.  It  is  wise  to  take  it  in 
hand  early. 

Sometimes,  if  the  yards  are  a  bit  muddy,  sore  feet 
develop.  These  ought  to  be  promptly  treated,  either 
with  blue  vitriol  or  butter  of  antimony  and  the  yard 
made  dry.  Air-slaked,  dry  lime  scattered  where  they 
will  get  it  on  their  feet  will  help. 

Now  we  have  the  lambs  used  to  their  new  home  and 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  287 

fed  up  on  alfalfa  until  they  are  strong  again,  we  are 
ready  to  introduce  them  to  grain  feeding.  It  is  a 
good  practice  to  turn  them  out  of  doors  while  we  put 
in  feed  for  them,  leaving  them  out  until  the  racks 
are  all  filled.  If  oats  are  plentiful  and  cheap  enough 
we  can  give  the  first  grain  food  of  oats,  mixed  with 
bran.  There  is  nothing  better  than  this.  Scatter 
the  grain  very  thinly  along  the  bottoms  of  the  racks, 
having  first  cleaned  them  out  well.  A  quart  to  a 
rack  will  be  an  abundance,  less  will  be  better. 

After  the  grain  put  in  the  hay  loosely.  Be  careful 
with  nice  bright  early-cut  clover  and  alfalfa  not  to 
feed  too  much ;  they  will  waste  it.  They  may  as  well 
eat  it  up  almost  clean. 

Let  the  lambs  come  in.  Throw  open  several  wide 
doors  at  one  time  so  that  they  will  not  crowd.  Little 
by  little  they  will  learn  the  taste  of  the  grain.  Do 
not  increase  the  amount  fed  until  you  feel  certain 
that  most  of  them  are  seeking  it.  Then  let  your  in- 
crease be  very  gradual. 

Corn,  in  the  cornbelt,  must  be  the  main  part  of 
the  fattening  ration.  Now  to  introduce  that.  Take 
ear  corn,  if  it  is  at  hand,  and  chop  the  ears  up  with 
a  hatchet  into  nubbins  about  an  inch  long.  Strew 
a  few  of  these  nubbins  in  each  rack.  Next  feeding 
time  strew  in  a  few  more.  Increase  very,  very  slow- 
ly as  they  learn  to  eat  the  corn,  till  you  are  giving 
them  several  ears  to  a  rack.  Cut  the  bits  longer  and 
longer,  till  at  last  you  are  merely  making  two  pieces 
of  an  ear.  Finally  stop  breaking  ears  at  all,  and 
feed  them  whole. 


288  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

You  should  be  about  45  days  in  getting  them  on 
to  what  is  practically  a  full  feed  of  corn.  And  then 
do  not  give  them  all  they  want,  but  give  them  nearly 
all.  If  when  on  full  feed  they  are  eating  as  much 
as  they  desire  within  a  very  few  grains  you  have 
done  well.  Be  sure  they  clean  it  all  up  at  every  feed 
and  come  eagerly  for  more  at  the  next  feeding  time. 

Now  when  they  have  gotten  to  eating  corn  well 
you  may  as  well  drop  the  bran  and  oats,  merely  be- 
cause of  the  expense  of  feeding  them,  since  oats  are 
usually  dear.  If  they  are  cheap  enough  continue  to 
feed  them,  and  so  of  barley,  in  connection  with  corn ; 
they  form  an  admirable  ration.  If  a  portion  of  the 
hay  must  be  prairie  hay,  oat  hay  or  timothy,  in  fact 
any  grass  not  a  clover,  you  cannot  discard  bran, 
since  there  is  too  little  protein  in  the  grasses  to 
make  the  lambs  grow.  They  need  to  make  a  lot  of 
flesh  and  bone,  too,  besides  the  fat.  If  you  have  them 
to  spare  feed  a  small  amount  of  soybeans  in  con- 
nection with  corn.  Soys  are  rich  in  protein,  some 
varieties  having  above  35  per  cent.  And  the  soy 
straw,  if  it  has  not  been  wet,  is  relished  though 
too  coarse  to  be  eaten  clean.  Oilmeal  in  connection 
with  bran,  where  grasses  or  corn  stover  form  the 
hay,  works  admirably. 

There  is  most  clean  profit,  however,  in  feeding 
a  simple  ration  of  alfalfa  hay  and  ear  corn  and 
nothing  else,  unless  corn  silage.  No  feed  will  make 
better  or  more  marketable  lambs. 

Once  on  full  feed  the  programme  should  be  an 
unvarying  one.  At  some  regular  time  in  the  morn- 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  289 

ing,  not  too  early,  say  half  an  hour  after  sunrise, 
the  lambs  should  have  their  morning  feed.  The 
water  should  be  looked  after  and  the  lambs  allowed 
peacefully  to  consume  their  allowance.  Shortly  after 
noon  they  will  lie  down  to  rest  and  sleep.  Do  not 
ever  disturb  them;  assimilation  takes  place  best 
when  they  are  asleep.  Try  to  feed  hay  with  judg- 
ment, so  that  they  eat  it  nearly  all  and  yet  have 
enough. 

At  about  four  in!  the  afternoon  begin  feeding 
again.  Later  will  serve,  so  you  observe  the  same 
time  each  day.  Feed  just  as  you  did  in  the  morning. 

One  hundred  lambs  will  eat  about  2y2  bushels 
of  corn  daily  when  on  full  feed,  unless  they  are  very 
small  lambs.  A  thousand  lambs  will  eat  more  than 
1,500  Ibs.  of  hay  daily.  It  takes  about  2y2  bushels 
of  corn  to  fatten  a  lamb  and  12  to  20  tons  of  hay  to 
the  hundred  lambs,  depending  on  how  long  they  are 
kept. 

Soon  the  stems  of  hay  will  accumulate  in  the  barn 
and  make  a  good  bed.  The  corn  should  be  cut  and 
the  stalks  fed  in  the  open  yard,  which  will  thus  be 
kept  dry  and  clean.  The  blades  of  the  corn  will  be 
pulled  off  and  eaten  and  the  hay  thus  helped  out. 

Soon  the  manure  spreader  must  be  started  taking 
out  the  accumulating  manure  from  the  shed.  Every 
day  a  few  loads  may  be  hauled  away  and  spread  on 
the  frozen  ground ;  thus  there  is  avoided  the  accumu- 
lation of  a  vast  amount  of  manure  to  be  cleared 
away  at  one  time  in  spring  when  every  sort  of  work 
is  crowding. 


290  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

Late  in  March  the  lambs  may  be  shorn,  if  they 
have  not  already  gone  to  market,  and  the  feeding- 
continued  for  a  little  time  thereafter.  When  they 
are  ripe  they  should  go  to  market,  otherwise  losses 
are  likely  to  follow,  not  from  disease  but  from  dis- 
orders favored  by  too  plethoric  a  condition. 

With  small  lambs  it  requires  at  least  120  days  to 
ripen.  With  larger  and  more  fleshy  ones  less  time 
is  required.  With  very  small  lambs  in  thin  flesh  180 
days  are  none  too  many  to  induce  ripeness.  The 
latter  part  of  the  feeding  period  gives  the  more 
profit,  since  gains  are  better  than  at  the  beginning 
when  the  lambs  were  unused  to  feed. 

It  is  cheaper  to  ship  the  lambs  to  market  clipped, 
since  many  more  can  ride  in  a  car  and  the  freight 
is  no  more. 

When  the  lambs  are  uneven  in  size  it  is  likely  that 
some  will  ripen  before  the  rest.  In  this  case  a  car- 
load may  often  be  sent  on  and  the  rest  allowed  to 
ripen  further. 

The  writer  has  sometimes  made  lambs  fed  in  this 
manner  gain  nearly  100  per  cent  in  weight.  It  is  a 
pleasant  business  and  in  the  long  run  profitable. 
Sometimes  a  year  will  come  when  the  price  of  feed- 
ers is  too  high  in  proportion  to  the  selling  price  of 
lambs  and  one  must  figure  on  the  value  of  the  ma- 
nure to  find  his  profit. 

In  recent  years  the  writer  has  varied  the  treatment 
outlined  by  feeding  corn  silage  in  connection  with 
ear  corn  and  alfalfa  hay.  This  silage  is  made  from 
well  matured  corn,  so  that  it  makes  a  sweet  silage, 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING 


291 


containing  little  acid  and  having  in  it  no  mold. 
Lambs  eat  this  greedily  and  seem  to  grow  much 
more  rapidly  than  when  it  is  withheld.  About  1^2 
to  2  pounds  of  silage  makes  a  day's  ration  for  a 
lamb.  The  writer  believes  this  cheapens  the  ration 
materially  and  perhaps  the  mutton  is  better;  he 
thinks  it  is  and  has  had  no  difficulty  in  securing  the 


SHEEP  WAGONS. 
Photo   from  Wilcox,   Annual   Report  B.   A.   1.   1902,   U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agr. 

top  price  for  his  alfalfa-silage-corn-fed  lambs.  When 
corn  is  made  into  silage  after  it  is  well  matured 
there  is  of  course  a  very  large  proportion  of  grain 
thereon  and  it  is  tender  and  succulent  and  much 
relished  by  the  lambs.  The  small  amount  of  acid 
in  the  silage  is  lactic  acid,  promotive  of  digestion. 
Silage  has  been  fed  to  breeding  ewes  with  excel- 


292  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

lent  results  when  it  was  of  good  quality  and  fed 
judiciously.  When  it  has  been  acid,  or  when  in 
immoderate  amounts,  disaster  has  followed  its  use. 

In  some  instances  that  have  come  under  the  writ- 
er's observation  great  losses  have  come  from  at- 
tempting to  feed  silage  exclusively  to  breeding  ewes. 
They  did  well  for  a  time,  then  went  swiftly  to  ruin, 
much  of  it  irretrievable.  Loss  has  also  come  from 
feeding  acid  silage. 

A  silo  should  not  be  built  with  cemented  water- 
tight floor.  On  such  a  floor  the  silage  becomes  very 
acid,  and  when  it  is  fed  to  sheep  trouble  follows. 
The  natural  earth  makes  the  best  floor  for  a  silo. 

Never  with  sheep  should  silage  form  more  than 
half  the  ration.  If  this  rule  is  observed  and  the  si- 
lage is  made  from  well  matured  corn,  planted  no 
thicker  than  for  the  regular  crop,  it  is  believed  that 
none  but  good  results  will  ever  follow  its  use. 

Lambs  will  not  consume  quite  all  the  coarser 
parts  of  the  silage.  These  must  be  thrown  under 
foot  or  cleaned  out  and  fed  to  cows.  The  writer  has 
seen  great  loss  from  feeding  the  refused  portions  of 
silage  to  horses.  In  one  instance  where  quite  a  heap 
of  it  had  accumulated  in  the  barnyard  eleven  horses 
and  mules  ate  of  it.  All  of  them  died.  There  is 
evidently  some  principle  developed  in  silage  after 
it  has  been  exposed  to  the  air,  perhaps,  that  is  most 
unfavorable  to  horses.  They  died  with  symptoms 
resembling  spinal  meningitis.  There  will  be  death 
loss  among  feeding  lambs  no  matter  how  carefully 
they  are  fed.  Care  will  greatly  reduce  this  loss, 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  293 

however.  The  writer  has  had  as  low  as  2  per  cent 
and  as  high  as  8  per  cent.  If  no  more  than  4  per  cent 
of  loss  is  sustained  no  one  needs  shed  tears. 

Attention  to  regularity  in  feeding,  care  that  no 
doors  or  gates  are  left  open  to  admit  lambs  to  feed 
bins,  and  always  feeding  well  under  the  gauge  of 
the  appetite  will  usually  keep  the  death  loss  very  low. 
With  western  lambs  there  is  sometimes  danger  of 
their  jumping  into  water  tanks  if  they  have  access 
thereto.  The  feeder  should  be  careful  that  no  sud- 
den fright  causes  them  to  stampede  in  the  barn  and 
pile  up,  which  may  smother  a  number. 

There  is  seldom  any  good  accomplished  by  treat- 
ing with  medicine  sick  lambs  in  the  feedlot,  unless 
for  stomach  worms.  These  should  be  cleaned  out 
before  the  feeding  begins.  The  writer  has  lost 
probably  his  full  share  of  lambs  and  has  tried  vari- 
ous remedial  treatments,  but  is  not  aware  that  he 
ever  helped  one.  Death,  in  fact,  usually  comes  from 
some  inflammation  of  the  intestinal  tract,  caused  by 
engorgement  of  rich  food,  and  medicine  only  ag- 
gravates the  trouble. 

There  will  occasionally  be  loss  from  gid,  or  turn- 
sick,  which  is  caused  by  a  bladder  worm  parasite  in 
the  brain.  There  is  no  practical  remedy  for  this, 
though  the  lamb  when  first  observed  will  make  good 
mutton. 

With  regular,  rational  treatment  the  lambs  will 
keep  in  health,  and  when  occasionally  one  dies  the 
owner  must  console  himself  by  thinking  of  the  99 
well  ones,  meantime  taking  off  the  pelt,  salting  it 


294  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

well  and  feeding  the  fresli  carcass  to  his  pigs  or 
chickens. 

The  writer  does  not  believe  it  necessary  for  lambs 
to  be  out  in  their  yards  during  day  or  night,  so  the 
barn  or  shed  is  as  thoroughly  aired  as  he  has  direct- 
ed. When  they  are  confined  their  urine  is  saved 
and  the  value  of  the  manure  greatly  increased. 
Eich  green  fields  spring  up  as  by  magic  about  the 
lamb  feeding  plant,  and  when  off  years  come  and 
little  direct  money  profit  is  seen  the  feeder  can  con- 
sole himself  if  he  has  husbanded  wisely  his  stores 
of  manure  by  seeing  the  corn  reaching  toward 
heaven  and  flaunting  its  banners  of  deepest,  dark- 
est green,  while  following  the  corn  are  fine  mead- 
ows of  alfalfa  or  clover. 

When  lambs  are  fed  long,  until  after  green  grass 
comes  in  spring,  it  is  a  temptation  to  turn  them 
out  to  graze  for  a  time.  This  is  a  mistaken  prac- 
tice, sure  to  result  in  great  loss.  The  lambs  will 
not  continue  to  gain  on  grass,  even  though  fed  their 
grain  as  usual,  at  least  there  will  be  a  period  of  re- 
action when  they  will  actually  lose  flesh,  though  if 
the  practice  be  continued  long  enough  they  will 
gain  it  back  again.  It  is  more  profitable  to  send 
them  to  market  right  from  their  dry  lot. 

Sometimes,  however,  lambs  are  bought  in  the 
spring  with  the  expectation  of  feeding  them  off  on 
grass,  with  corn.  This  may  prove  a  satisfactory 
enterprise  if  it  is  carefully  managed.  The  troughs 
should  be  placed  in  a  yard  or  temporary  corral  in 
the  pasture  and  when  grain  is  put  in  them  the  en- 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  295 

tire  flock  must  be  called  or  driven  within  and  fas- 
tened there  for  a  sufficient  time  for  them  to  con- 
sume their  ration.  They  may  then  be  loosened  and 
permitted  to  roam  where  they  will  until  the  next 
feeding  time  arrives. 

The  feeder  must  see  to  it  that  every  lamb  comes 
up  every  time.  Otherwise  he  will  have  cases  of  in- 
digestion and  founder ;  many  will  get  off  their  feed. 

Sometimes  self-feeders  are  used  on  pasture. 
They  seldom  result  well,  owing  to  the  essentially 
short  memory  and  weak  original  impulse  of  the 
lamb.  He  will  not  leave  his  fellows  to  go  for  feed 
when  he  is  hungry,  and  when  he  does  reach  the 
feeder  he  is  apt  to  gorge  himself,  thereafter  declin- 
ing to  eat  at  all. 

USE   OF   SELF-FEEDERS. 

The  writer  has  used  self-feeders  in  past  years  in 
his  feeding  barns  and  discarded  them  entirely. 
Various  tests  have  shown  that  not  only  is  the  death 
loss  much  heavier  where  self-feeders  are  used  for 
corn  but  the  cost  of  gains  is  also  much  greater.  If 
bran  is  fed  it  may  be  fed  in  a  self-feeder,  though 
of  course  this  requires  the  use  of  considerable  bran, 
and  light  screenings  are  well  enough  fed  in  that 
manner,  but  for  corn,  barley  or  wheat,  troughs  and 
regular  rations  are  safer  and  better. 

FEEDING   BEET    PULP. 

Nearness  to  sugar  factories  gives  opportunity  to 
utilize  the  waste  product  called  beet  pulp.  This 


296  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

pulp  is  an  excellent  food  but  contains  90  per  cent 
of  water.  Therefore,  like  silage,  it  is  not  well  to 
feed  it  without  dry  grain  being  added  to  the  ration 
as  well  as  dry  forage.  A  ton  of  pulp  contains 
about  the  same  feeding  value  as  200  pounds  of  corn. 
This  would  indicate  what  the  farmer  can  afford  to 
pay  for  pulp — a  very  small  amount  indeed  when  he 
must  count  the  cost  of  hauling  and  feeding.  It  is 
doubtless  a  healthful  addition  to  the  ration  but  ex- 
periments show  that  pulp  alone  with  alfalfa  hay 
does  not  make  as  good  lambs  as  corn  and  alfalfa. 

There  is  little  bone  material  in  beet  pulp,  and 
lambs  fed  on  it  are  said  to  suffer  from  that  lack. 
It  would  seem,  however,  that  alfalfa  would  make 
good  this  deficiency.  The  practical  objection  to 
feeding  beet  pulp  in  cold  weather  is  its  freezing, 
or  its  liability  to  make  the  yards  damp. 

The  quality  of  meat  from  these  pulp-fed  lambs 
is  very  good,  though  they  do  not  stand  shipment  so 
well  as  corn-fed  lambs. 

CAUSES  OF  DEATH  IN  THE  FEEDLOT. 

Lambs  born  east  of  the  Missouri  River  are  often 
infested  with  stomach  worms.  In  buying  them  in 
the  fall  to  put  on  feed  only  the  thin  ones  can  be 
secured,  and  these  are  almost  certainly  infested. 
These  lambs  will  die  rapidly  in  the  feedlot  unless 
they  are  thoroughly  treated  to  eradicate  the  worms. 

Lambs  free  from  parasites  should  not  die.  When 
they  do  it  is  because  of  some  mistake  in  their  man- 
agement, or  some  accident. 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING 


297 


a 

w    Q 

1 1 

>    > 


g,    W 

g      N 
H     Q 


11 

02      2 

?  .a 
2 


298  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

The  heaviest  losses  that  ever  occurred  to  the 
writer  came  from  feeding  a  large  amount  of  oat 
hay,  not  well  cured,  and  on  which  had  been  put  too 
much  salt  in  an  effort  to  keep  it  from  molding. 
Very  many  lambs  die  from  affections  of  the  bladder 
causing  retention  of  urine,  or  " water  belly/' 
There  is  some  evidence  that  the  too  free  use  of  oat 
hay  will  cause  this. 

Many  lambs  are  lost  from  indigestion  caused  by 
feeding  too  much  grain,  or  by  introducing  them  too 
suddenly  to  grain.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of  all  the 
lambs  dying  in  the  feedlot  die  from  indigestion 
caused  by  over-eating  grain. 

In  investigating  the  causes  of  death  losses  the 
writer  has  found  these  significant  illustrations. 
One  man  fed  his  lambs  in  the  sheds,  feeding  corn, 
clover  hay  and  corn  silage.  He  did  nof  feed  too 
much  grain,  but  he  did  not  turn  the  lambs  out  when 
he  fed  them.  Thus  some  of  the  lambs  began  eating 
sooner  than  the  others  and  naturally  ate  too  much. 
Another  man  had  heavy  losses  because  his  lambs 
had  not  enough  good  hay  and  too  much  moldy  en- 
silage. Had  they  had  a  sufficiency  of  hay  it  is 
doubtful  if  they  would  have  eaten  the  moldy  por- 
tions of  the  silage.  It  is  not  well  to  feed  moldy 
silage  to  any  animals.  We  have  lost  lambs  through 
the  carelessness  of  feeders  in  leaving  the  granary 
door  open.  We  have  lost  lambs  from  an  awkward 
arrangement  of  our  sheds,  having  an  L  with  a  long 
and  narrow  extension.  This  prevented  perfect  dis- 
tribution of  the  lambs.  Something  frightened  the 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  299 

lambs  from  the  L,  maybe  a  house  cat,  or  a  rat  or 
barn  fowl,  and  they  fled  to  the  main  part  of  the 
shed  soon  after  they  were  turned  to  their  feed.  A 
few  ventured  and  ate  too  much  corn.  They  died. 
The  writer  has  had  a  death  loss  of  less  than  1  per 
cent,  and  as  high  as  6  per  cent.  No  one  need  feel 
disheartened  at  a  loss  of  3  per  cent  between  pur- 
chase and  sale. 

To  absolutely  prevent  loss  it  is  quite  necessary  to 
start  with  healthy  lambs;  to  rest  them  and  begin 
by  feeding  very  moderately,  using  good  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  as  the  basis  of  their  ration  and  to  in- 
troduce them  to  corn  very  slowly  and  gradually;  to 
increase  the  ration  so  slowly  that  they  will  be  un- 
aware of  the  change — to  feed  always  with  perfect 
regularity  and  always  a  little  less  grain  than  they 
will  consume  and  to  give  attention  to  very  thorough 
ventilation  and  the  supply  of  pure  water.  The  salt 
supply  should  be  always  conveniently  available. 
Nothing  should  ever  frighten  the  lambs.  Stam- 
peding them  will  often  cause  death.  When  lambs  are 
lying  down  they  should  never  be  disturbed.  They 
fatten  most  while  reclining  and  asleep. 

PEAS   FOR  LAMBS. 

In  some  regions  where  the  Canada  field  peas 
thrive,  or  near  the  factories  where  split  peas  are 
prepared,  peas  or  pea  refuse  is  available  for  lamb 
feeding.  There  is  nothing  better.  Lambs  grow, 
thrive  and  fatten  admirably  on  this  food.  With 
peas  for  the  grain  ration  it  is  not  so  material  that 


300  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

alfalfa  be  fed,  since  peas  are  exceedingly  rich  in 
protein. 

Cheap  beans  also  make  a  very  rich  feed  on  which 
sheep  and  lambs  thrive.  In  Michigan  and  New 
York,  where  beans  are  quite  extensively  grown, 
bean  straw  with  pods  are  fed,  together  with  broken 
and  refuse  beans.  Sheep  thrive  on  bean  straw. 
Being  a  forage  rich  in  protein,  it  is  well  suited  to 
the  needs  of  sheep.  When  beans  or  peas  are  fed 
it  is  well  to  feed  corn  with  them,  since  either  beans 
or  peas  are  too  highly  nitrogenous  to  form  a  per- 
fectly balanced  ration;  corn,  rich  in  starches  and 
oil,  serves  well  to  bring  the  ration  into  more  per- 
fect balance. 

LAMB    FEEDING    IN    MICHIGAN. 

In  central  Michigan  is  seen  a  type  of  lamb  feed- 
ing unique  in  America.  In  Shiawasse  and  adjoin- 
ing counties  it  is  well  developed.  Farms  are  given 
over  entirely  to  lamb  feeding.  Only  forage  is 
grown,  as  hay  and  silage;  not  all  feeders  yet  use 
silage.  Bean  straw  is  used  to  a  limited  extent. 
Grain  purchased  either  in  the  form  of  "salvage" 
grain  (damaged  grain  from  burned  elevators  often- 
times) or  corn  from  the  cornbelt.  Barns  are  very 
large  and  good,  holding  from  500  to  3,000  lambs. 
Some  feeders  fill  their  barns  twice  during  the  sea- 
son, selling  the  first  lot  in  midwinter,  the  second 
lot  in  May  or  June.  Astonishingly  little  forage  is 
fed;  the  lambs  are  required  to  clean  up  every  whit 
of  what  is  given  them.  The  distinguishing  feature 


WESTERN  LAMB  FEEDING  301 

of  these  feeding  barns  is  the  racks  in  which  hay  and 
grain  are  fed.  These  are  permanent  and  divide  the 
floor  into  small  pens,  say  16'xl6'.  Each  pen  holds 
about  40  lambs.  Water  is  in  each  pen,  commonly 
in  a  clay  tile  or  sewer  pipe,  all  of  which  are  filled 
by  use  of  one  float  valve  somewhere  in  the  barn. 
The  barns  do  not  often  freeze  in  cold  weather.  The 
peculiar  thing  about  the  racks  is  that  each  one  has 
an  open  end  connecting  with  a  feedalley,  so  that  a 
man  can  walk  in  and  sweep  it  out  and  put  in  the 
feed.  The  racks  are  two  feet  or  less  in  width,  and 
the  floors  are  tight.  Lambs  eat  through  a  long  hor- 
izontal opening  in  the  side  of  the  rack  through 
which  they  thrust  their  heads.  This  opening  is 
readily  closed  by  lifting  a  board  that  just  fills  the 
space.  The  board  is  lifted  by  means  of  a  lever  to 
which  are  attached  cords  that  run  forward  over 
pulleys.  This  may  sound  complicated,  but  really  it 
is  very  simple.  In  operation  the  feeder  first  pulls 
his  levers  and  shuts  the  lambs  away  from  the  racks, 
then  walking  in  sweeps  them  clean.  He  then  puts 
in  the  feed,  both  grain  and  hay,  and  perhaps  silage, 
after  which  a  pull  of  the  levers  raises  the  boards 
that  have  closed  the  openings  in  the  sides  of  the 
racks.  At  once  whole  lines  of  lambs  thrust  in  their 
heads  and  all  begin  eating.  The  levers  are  locked 
to  hold  the  boards  safely  in  place  when  the  racks 
are  open.  The  one  inconvenience  of  this  arrange- 
ment is  that  the  manure  must  be  thrown  out 
through  windows  or  by  the  use  of  carriers.  When 
all  in  a  neighborhood  adopt  a  scheme  of  this  kind 


302  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

it  must  have  merit  worth  considering.  For  one 
thing,  the  feeder  can  assort  his  lambs  according  to 
size  and  condition  very  nicely  in  these  small  pens. 

THE  BUSINESS   OP  LAMB   FEEDING. 

The  writer  thinks  it  unnecessary  to  ask  pardon 
for  thus  devoting  so  many  pages  to  the  description 
of  the  lamb  feeding  industry,  based  on  western 
lambs,  corn  and  alfalfa. 

It  is  easy  to  see  from  the  immensity  of  the  ranges 
and  the  constant  supply  of  lambs  coming  from  them, 
together  with  the  great  and  ever-increasing  demand 
for  lamb  mutton  in  the  United  States,  that  this  in- 
dustry is  one  destined  to  steady  growth  and  im- 
portance. Old  sheep  are  fed  in  relatively  decreas- 
ing numbers  and  the  demand  for  strictly  "baby 
lambs"  is  absorbing  a  greater  and  greater  propor- 
tion of  the  farm-grown  lambs.  Lamb  feeding  as  a 
speculation  may  result  disastrously,  indeed  is  cer- 
tain to  do  so  at  times  when  feeders  are  bought 
dear,  feeds  are  high  in  price  and  lambs  sell  cheaply 
in  spring;  but  the  farmer  who  fits  himself  for  the 
business  and  feeds  with  care  and  steadiness  year 
by  year  will  find  his  profits  encouraging  and  his 
farm  increasing  steadily  in  productiveness.  The 
work  is  such  that  farm  labor  finds  employment  the 
year  round,  thus  good  men  are  attracted  to  lamb- 
feeding  farms. 

FEEDING  OF   OLDER   SHEEP. 

After  the  lamb  comes  the  yearling  in  point  of 
merit  as  a  feeder.  Very  often  the  yearling  was  a 


WESTERN  LAMB   FEEDING 


303 


light  lamb,  too  light  the  owner  thought  to  put  upon 
the  market  in  the  fall.  In  the  feedlot  yearlings 
thrive.  They  do  not  always  have  perfect  front  teeth 
and  are  therefore  less  able  to  eat  ear  corn.  If 
bought  light  enough  their  gain  is  very  good.  They 
may  be  fed  best  in  just  the  way  described  for  feed- 


A   PAIR   OF  HAMPSHIRE    LAMBS. 


ing  lambs  and  their  treatment  need  vary  in  no  par- 
ticular save  one.  Should  there  be  any  ewes  among 
these  yearlings  the  feeder  must  be  very  careful  that 
they  do  not  get  access  in  any  way  to  the  ram,  or 
that  there  be  no  rams  among  the  lot  when  bought. 

Ewes  in  the  feedlot  will  not  very  often  drop  liv- 
ing lambs.    If  they  are  sent  to  market  before  lamb- 


304  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

ing,  supposing  they  show  strong  signs  of  pregnancy, 
they  are  subject  to  dockage  and  may  possibly  be 
thrown  out  by  the  inspectors. 

FEEDING    MATURE    WETHERS. 

There  are  advantages  that  lambs  do  not  possess 
in  feeding  wethers.  They  are  big  and  strong  and 
hardy.  They  do  not  die  so  easily.  They  do  not  need 
shelter  so  much  as  the  lambs  need  it.  They  will 
thrive  quite  well  on  corn  and  corn  stover  with  little 
hay.  They  are  adapted  to  a  ruder,  rougher  style 
of  sheep  husbandry  than  the  lambs. 

There  are,  however,  some  few  essentials  to  suc- 
cessful wether  feeding.  First  and  most  important 
is  to  buy  the  right  class  and  to  buy  them  cheap 
enough.  With  the  lamb  one  can  afford  better  to 
pay  too  much,  since  the  gain  in  weight  may  be  so 
great  that  the  excess  of  cost  may  be  offset  by  the 
good  gain  in  pounds  and  profitable  price  for  it. 
With  mature  sheep  much  smaller  gains  can  be  had, 
and  if  there  is  not  a  material  advance  in  selling 
price  over  cost  loss  is  apt  to  follow. 

In  lamb  feeding  there  is  often  most  profit  in  buy- 
ing small,  immature  lambs.  With  wethers,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  bigger  and  better  matured  they  are 
the  better  the  chances  presumably  are  for  profits 
in  feeding  them — that  is,  if  they  have  been  bought 
low  enough  so  that  the  selling  price  will  be  mate- 
rially better.  There  is  thus  the  advanced  gain  on 
the  first  cost  besides  the  pay  for  what  weight  is 
put  on.  Opinions  differ  as  to  what  advance  in  price 


WESTERN   LAMB   FEEDING 


305 


the  feeder  of  mature  sheep  must  have  in  order  to 
make  a  profit.  Certainly  it  depends  much  upon  the 
selling  price;  if  that  is  high  there  is  less  need  of 
margin  than  if  it  is  low.  In  general  there  should 
be  a  rise  of  a  dollar  per  hundred  to  make  feeding 
of  mature  sheep  profitable.  This  also  depends 
much  upon  the  price  of  wool.  When  wool  sells  as 


AT  A    ROYAL   ENGLISH    SHOW. 


high  as  25  to  30  cents  per  pound  the  profit  of  feed- 
ing mature  sheep  is  naturally  much  greater  than 
when  wool  is  low.  Then  also  one  can  afford  to  feed 
the  heavy  shearing  types,  which  do  not  naturally 
make  so  good  gains  in  weight  as  do  the  more  open 
wooled  and  light  shearing  sorts. 

In  feeding  sheep  there  is  need  in  the  ration  for 
much  less  protein  than  when  lambs  are  fed. 


306  SHEEP  FARMING  IN   AMERICA 

The  reason  is  plain:  the  mature  sheep  has  its 
frame  already  built;  has  nearly  as  much  muscular 
structure  as  it  will  ever  have.  It  has  been  demon- 
strated that  feeding  does  not  materially  add  to  the 
flesh  of  the  animal,  unless  perhaps  in  case  of  con- 
siderable emaciation,  but  puts  on  fat  instead,  either 
intruding  it  between  the  muscles,  or,  what  is  usual 
with  the  sheep,  depositing  it  in  masses  partly  upon 
the  inside  and  partly  distributed  over  the  body. 

The  lamb,  as  has  been  noted,  has  its  framework 
yet  to  build,  therefore  it  needs  and  must  have  abun- 
dant protein,  hence  its  thrift  when  fed  such  pro- 
tein-carrying foods  as  wheat  bran,  oilmeal,  soy- 
beans and  alfalfa  or  clover  hay. 

Corn  (maize),  is  pre-eminently  the  best  foodstuff 
for  fattening  sheep.  It  may  be  fed  in  very  economi- 
cal manner.  In  Ohio  it  is  the  practice  to  cut  the 
corn  when  ripe,  gathering  it  into  large  shocks  con- 
taining from  144  to  256  hills.  These  shocks  tightly 
bound  about  the  tops  keep  out  the  weather  and  pre- 
serve the  ears  and  blades  very  well.  From  the  field 
the  shocks  are  drawn  direct  to  the  feedyard,  or  to 
some  large,  dry  feeding  field,  where  the  unhusked 
corn  is  strewn  thinly  over  the  ground.  Here  the 
sheep  consume  the  ears  with  little  or  no  waste, 
trimming  off  the  blades  also.  If  this  practice  of 
feeding  shock  corn  is  now  supplemented  by  supply- 
ing racks  filled  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  the  sheep 
are  as  well  provided  for  as  need  be. 

Sheep  consume  more  food  than  steers,  weight  for 
weight  of  animals  being  compared,  and  also  make 


WESTERN  LAMB   FEEDING  307 

slightly  greater  gains  for  food  consumed.  In  gen- 
eral sheep  will  consume  proportionately  about  one- 
fourth  more  than  steers. 

There  would  thus  seem  to  be  considerable  ad- 
vantage in  feeding  sheep  over  feeding  cattle,  when 
gains  are  considered  and  also  fleeces  secured,  were 
it  not  that  death  losses  are  higher  among  sheep  and 
also  prices  fluctuate  considerably,  sometimes  feed- 
ers being  relatively  high  in  the  fall  and  ripe  sheep 
low  in  the  spring. 

The  correct  management  of  a  sheep  feeding  yard 
is  simple.  There  should  be  provided  windbreaks. 
It  is  an  old  saying  that  "the  pig  can  see  the  wind" 
and  the  sheep  can  certainly  feel  it  through  its  thick 
coat.  Sometimes  these  windbreaks  are  formed  by 
long  sheds,  sometimes  by  high  fences,  made  tight, 
and  sometimes  they  are  of  natural  timber  and 
brush.  Some  of  the  best  fat  sheep  the  writer  has 
ever  seen  were  fed  in  the  old-fashioned  way  on 
shock  corn,  in  a  bluegrass  pasture  that  had  been  al- 
lowed to  grow  up  very  high  and  thick,  and  where 
open  glades  were  interspersed  with  thickets  of 
hazel,  oak  and  hickory.  In  this  primitive  solitude 
the  sheep  found  shelter  and  sustenance,  feeding  on 
shock  corn  strewn  in  the  open  places  where  the  wind 
could  not  reach  them. 

Water  must  be  abundant  and  good  and  very  ac- 
cessible. Sheep  will  not  thrive  if  they  must  go  far 
for  their  drink. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  wide,  flat-bottomed 
troughs  in  which  may  be  fed  husked  ear  corn,  since 


308  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

it  will  not  be  practicable  to  feed  shock  corn  all  the 
season.  If  the  sheep  have  their  teeth  they  will  shell 
the  ear  corn  so  readily  that  it  is  not  worth  while 
shelling  it  for  them. 

The  hay  racks  are  best  in  shelter  of  sheds  so  that 
the  hay  cannot  become  wet  with  rains.  And  if  there 
is  room  so  that  all  can  be  sheltered  from  soaking 
storms  all  the  better.  Dry  cold  and  snow  will  not 
hurt  but  wet  is  a  serious  setback. 

Many  sheep  feeders  rely  upon  self-feeders  and 
shelled  corn  for  the  finishing  of  the  sheep.  These 
are  usually  large  bins,  holding  20  to  100  bushels 
each,  with  troughs  on  either  side  into  which  the  corn 
descends  slowly.  There  seems  less  objection  to  the 
use  of  the  self-feeder  for  mature  sheep  than  for 
lambs.  The  writer  believes,  however,  that  the  great- 
er profit  comes  from  regular  feeding  in  troughs  of 
rations  a  little  under  the  appetites  of  the  sheep. 

A  better  and  safer  self-feeder  is  the  self -feeding 
corncrib.  This  is  built  with  a  capacity  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  bushels,  with  a  large  trough  at  the 
side  into  which  the  corn  descends.  Sheep  shell  this 
corn  at  their  will  and  the  cobs  are  thrown  out  as 
they  gather. 

Sheep  ought  to  gain  on  feed  from  one  to  four 
pounds  per  week,  depending  on  their  condition  and 
the  stage  of  feeding.  The  gains  are  most  rapid  just 
before  approaching  ripeness. 

Death  losses  in  feeding  mature  sheep  should  be 
slightly  less  than  in  feeding  lambs.  Naturally  gains 
are  less  since  there  is  not  opportunity  for  much 


WESTERN  LAMB   FEEDING  309 

growth  along  with  fattening.  The  writer  once  made 
a  gain  of  45  pounds  with  lambs  in  the  barn  while 
his  wethers  outside,  very  well  fed,  gained  20  pounds. 
The  wethers  consumed  more  corn  than  the  lambs 
but  had  no  wheat  bran  which  the  lambs  received. 

Sheep,  better  than  lambs,  will  consume  various 
coarse  fodders.  Soybean  straw  they  relish  if  it 
is  not  weather  damaged,  and  bean  and  pea  straw. 
When  only  a  maintenance  ration  is  fed  it  may  con- 
sist largely  of  these  fodders,  with  a  trifle  of  grain 
to  keep  up  weight. 

While  in  the  regions  west  of  the  Missouri  sheep 
feeding  is  carried  on  in  this  rather  primitive  fash- 
ion, in  Michigan  and  Ohio  it  has  progressed  further 
toward  a  right  solution  of  the  problem.  The  writer 
has  a  neighbor  who  has  fed  sheep  for  many  years. 
This  neighbor,  Chas.  Bales  of  Madison  Co.,  Ohio, 
formerly  fed  in  open  yards  protected  only  by  high 
fences.  In  these  yards  he  fed  with  shock  corn,  us- 
ing self-feeders  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  pe- 
riod. He  was  able  to  get  a  gain  of  about  30  pounds, 
using  the  best  class  of  Montana  feeders. 

Later  he  built  barns  and  sheds  in  which  he  fed 
clover  and  alfalfa  hay.  Continuing  his  grain  feed- 
ing in  much  the  same  manner  he  was  able  to  in- 
crease his  average  gain  so  that  1,000  sheep  weigh- 
ing when  they  went  into  the  yard  110  pounds  aver- 
age increased  to  a  weight  of  156  pounds  besides 
shearing  a  fleece  of  10  pounds.  At  the  same  time 
he  cut  down  his  death  losses  to  2  sheep  from  1,200 
one  year  and  again  to  6  from  1,200.  He  attributes 


310  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

the  lighter  losses  to  the  fact  of  the  sheep  being 
more  comfortable,  thus  eating  with  more  regularity, 
and  not  injuring  their  digestions  by  sudden  over- 
loading with  grain.  He  now  believes  that  the  self- 
feeders  should  be  under  cover  and  only  the  shock 
corn  fed  in  yards. 

This  man  makes  a  practice  of  saving  the  late  sum- 
mer growth  of  bluegrass  on  large  pastures,  on 
which  the  sheep  are  turned  in  October  or  Novem- 
ber. On  these  pastures  they  remain  until  Christmas 
or  sometimes  till  February  if  the  season  is  suitable, 
having  also  racks  filled  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 
They  then  go  to  the  yards  for  the  final  feeding,  go- 
ing to  market,  shorn,  in  May. 

He  believes  that  the  secret  of  success  in  feeding 
wethers  is  to  buy  the  best,  using  those  with  a  Cots- 
wold  or  Lincoln  cross  if  obtainable,  and  to  keep 
them  stuffed  at  all  times  full  of  grass  or  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay.  He  finds  that  by  this  method  they  con- 
sume less  corn  and  do  not  suffer  from  indigestion 
from  the  result  of  too  much  grain. 

He  does  not  turn  the  sheep  to  pasture  until  such 
time  as  danger  from  infection  by  intestinal  para- 
sites is  past. 


CHAPTER  X. 
THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 

AILMENTS  IX  GENERAL. 

The  writer  is  sure  that  sooner  or  later  the  reader 
will  feel  a  sudden  need  of  knowledge  of  sheep  dis- 
eases and  the  remedies  therefor.  Thus  at  the  risk 
of  duplicating  a  good  deal  that  has  been  said  else- 
where, he  devotes  this  chapter  specifically  to  sheep 
diseases. 

At  the  outset  let  me  say  that  to  the  novice,  and 
sometimes  to  the  professional,  it  is  very  difficult 
oftentimes  to  say  just  what  ails  a  sick  sheep.  Dis- 
eases may,  however,  be  divided  into  three  principal 
classes : 

First,  there  may  be  some  external  parasite,  as 
the  tick,  louse,  scab  or  foot-rot  (which  is  in  a  sense 
an  external  disease). 

Second,  there  may  be  some  form  of  internal  para- 
sitism. This  may  be  worms  in  the  stomach  or  in- 
testines, in  the  throat  or  lungs,  or  encysted  worms 
making  a  bladder  in  the  brain.  And  one  or  another 
of  these  internal  parasites  is  the  cause  of  most  of 
the  sickness  among  sheep. 

Last,  there  may  be  some  derangement  of  the  di- 
gestion due  to  improper  feeding,  no  feeding  at  all, 

(311) 


312  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

or  gorging  with  grain.  And  in  some  regions,  among 
the  class  of  sheepmen  who  feed  sheep  in  winter, 
nearly  all  diseases  are  of  this  origin. 

Now  as  to  the  chance  of  cure.  For  external  para- 
sites cure  is  easy  and  cheap.  For  scab,  lice,  and 
ticks  there  is  the  dipping  bath,  and  this  has  been 
carefully  explained  in  another  place.  Foot-rot  is 
also  of  rather  easy  treatment. 

These  things  are  matters  requiring  timely  and 
prompt  treatment  and  are  no  cause  for  alarm 
whatever  except  as  scab  breaks  out  in  the  winter 
time  in  the  middle  of  the  feeding  season,  when  it 
is  costly  to  dip  and  the  sheep  have  serious  setback 
therefrom.  Indeed,  it  is  not  just  proper  to  class 
these  external  parasites  as  diseases,  any  more  than 
fleas  on  a  dog's  back,  though  they  produce  disease 
if  left  unchecked. 

The  matter  of  internal  parasites  is  much  more 
serious.  Nine-tenths  of  all  the  troubles  of  sheep 
east  of  the  Missouri  Eiver  are  caused  by  some  form 
or  other  of  these  plagues,  or  by  a  combination  of 
them.  We  will  presently  give  to  them  some  atten- 
tion in  detail. 

Derangements  of  the  digestion,  caused  by  too 
much  or  too  little  food,  or  by  food  of  improper 
quality,  are  often  hard  to  diagnose.  For  example, 
recently  a  neighbor  of  the  writer  came  to  him  for 
advice.  His  wethers  suffered  from  some  brain  dis- 
order; they  turned  around  and  around  in  small  cir- 
cles, acting  stupefied ;  they  lingered  a  few  days  and 
died.  These  sheep  had  come  from  the  same  range  in 


THE   DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  313 

Montana.  The  writer  promptly  diagnosed  the  dis- 
ease as  gid,  or  turn  sickness,  caused  by  the  encysted 
parasites  called  Taenia  Coenurus.  This  worm  is 
the  fruit  of  a  tape  worm  that  infests  dogs  or  wolves. 
The  eggs  pass  from  the  dogs  or  wolves  and  are 
taken  in  by  the  sheep  on  the  grass  or  in  their  drink- 
ing water.  They  hatch  within  the  sheep  and  the 
young  worms  pierce  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  gain- 
ing the  blood  where  they  travel  until  they  reach  the 
brain,  where  they  undergo  a  change,  developing 
heads  and  making  large  bladders  in  which  to  live. 
It  is  necessary  that  the  sheep  should  die  after  these 
cysts  have  reached  a  certain  stage  of  development 
so  that  some  dog,  fox  or  wolf  may  feed  upon  the 
dead  sheep's  head  and  thus  take  into  its  own  sys- 
tem the  parasites  which  become  established  there 
as  regular  tapeworms.  Thus  the  round  is  contin- 
ued. The  tapeworm  within  the  dog  or  wolf  reinfects 
the  grass,  the  sheep  become  affected  and  die  to  in- 
fect more  dogs  (if  there  are  any).  Now  the  way 
this  hydatid  affects  sheep  is  by  pressing  upon  the 
brain  substance  and  absorbing  it  until  the  nervous 
system  is  quite  deranged,  the  sheep  is  stupid,  it 
turns  steadily  round  and  round,  always  the  same 
way,  neglects  food  and  dies. 

The  disease  is  somewhat  prevalent  in  England 
and  Scotland  in  some  years  but  is  probably  rare  in 
America,  at  least  in  a  rather  long  experience  the 
writer  is  not  sure  that  he  has  ever  seen  an  instance 
of  it,  but  from  his  book  lore  he  advised  his  neighbor 
to  dissect  the  next  ailing  sheep  and  look  for  the 


314  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

brain  bladder  worm  or  hydatid.  The  neighbor 
obeyed,  but  no  brain  disease  was  found.  Another 
neighbor  sent  word  to  the  afflicted  one  to  cease  feed- 
ing millet  hay  full  of  seed,  which  he  did  and  lost  no 
more  sheep,  having  lost  some  30  before.  Thus  there 
was  a  clear  case  of  deranged  digestion  deceiving 
one  by  the  symptoms  resembling  those  of  brain  par- 
asitism. 

The  writer  has  seen  other  instances  of  deranged 
digestion  that  in  the  last  stages  gave  symptoms  very 
like  the  ones  described. 

Now  a  word  about  true  "turn  sickness."  It  is 
sometimes  possible  to  cure  the  disease  by  locating 
the  place  in  the  brain  where  the  bladder  is  formed 
and  cutting  through  the  skull  and  destroying  the 
parasite  by  puncturing  the  sac  that  holds  it.  It  is 
said  recovery  sometimes  follows  this  operation. 
And  in  Scotland  it  is  reported  that  some  shepherds 
have  such  skill  that  they  can  push  a  sharp  wire  up 
the  nostril  till  it  locates  and  punctures  the  bladder 
in  the  brain.  This,  if  true,  is  an  interesting  and 
astounding  fact.  In  practice,  in  America,  where 
sheep  are  plenty  and  veterinarians  of  the  finest  skill 
in  sheep  diseases  are  costly  to  employ  for  such 
cases,  it  is  best  to  kill  the  sheep  for  mutton  (which 
is  not  hurt  by  the  brain  hydatid  in  the  earlier 
stages),  feed  the  head  to  the  fire,  and  not  to  dogs, 
and  get  some  new  sheep.  It  is  a  safe  rule  never  to 
allow  a  dog  or  wolf  to  devour  a  sheep's  head  at  any 
time.  And  dogs  about  the  place  may  well  be  treated 
for  tapeworms.  Dr.  Eushworth  thus  prescribes  for 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  315 

tapeworms  in  dogs:  "The  dog  to  be  treated  should 
not  be  fed  for  at  least  twelve  hours  before  receiv- 
ing the  medicine  but  it  can  be  allowed  all  the  water 
it  chooses.  The  evening  before  administering  the 
worm  medicine  a  dose  of  castor  oil  is  advisable; 
for  large  dogs  the  dose  is  three  tablespoonfuls. 
Then  in  the  morning  take  of  kamala  3  drams, 
gruel  1  ounce ;  mix  and  give  as  a  dose.  With  a  me- 
dium-sized dog  two  drams  of  kamala  will  be  suffi- 
cient. This  is  a  very  effective  taeniacide." 

As  to  the  cure  of  disorders  of  sheep  caused  by 
overfeeding  in  the  barn  or  feedlot.  Cases  will  oc- 
cur in  the  best  regulated  barns,  not  very  many  when 
things  are  carefully  done,  but  always  some.  The 
writer  and  his  brothers  and  neighbors  have  lost 
hundreds  of  sheep  and  lambs  from  this  cause  and 
tried  many  reputed  remedies.  He  does  not  now  be- 
lieve he  has  ever  benefited  a  sick  sheep  by  medicine 
or  treatment  when  the  cause  was  due  to  serious  de- 
rangement of  digestion.  Death  is  almost  sure  to 
follow  no  matter  what  you  may  do.  If  there  is 
virtue  in  anything  it  is  in  simply  taking  the  sheep 
away  from  all  grain  whatever  and  letting  it  alone. 
If  there  is  not  too  much  internal  disorder  this  will 
suffice,  but  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred 
when  the  sheep  is  sick  enough  to  be  very  noticeable 
it  will  die  no  matter  what  you  may  do.  So  pre- 
vention, not  remedy,  is  the  rule  for  disorders  of  the 
digestion.  These  cases  come  from  gorging  with 
grain  and  there  is  probably  some  toxic  poison 
formed,  for  in  many  instances  where  the  writer  has 


316  SHEEP  FARMING  IN   AMERICA 

made  post-mortem  examinations  of  afflicted  sheep 
immediately  after  death  no  morbid  condition  was 
apparent  save  a  slight  inflammation  of  some  part  of 
the  intestinal  tract,  and  sometimes  even  this  was 
not  in  evidence. 

Disorders  of  the  bladder  causing  stoppage  of  the 
urine  are  caused  by  the  deposit  of  limy  substances 
in  the  bladder,  which  become  washed  into  the 
urethra  where  they  lodge,  causing  inflammation, 
stoppage  of  the  urine,  a  period  of  suffering  accom- 
panied with  great  distension  of  the  bladder,  then 
death. 

The  reason  for  this  disorder  seems  to  be  in  some 
instances  the  eating  of  too  many  mangels  rich  in 
lime,  the  eating  of  too  much  salt,  or  the  drinking 
of  water  too  "hard"  with  lime.  The  worst  instance 
that  ever  came  under  the  writer's  observation  was 
in  his  own  feeding  barns  where  he  had  a  great  store 
of  oat  hay,  put  up  so  very  moist  that  to  save  it,  it 
was  liberally  sprinkled  with  salt.  The  salt  was 
greatly  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  the  animals  and 
made  them  consume  much  more  water  than  they 
otherwise  would.  Very  many  of  the  wether  lambs 
became  afflicted  with  this  distressing  malady  and 
many  remedies  were  attempted  to  save  them.  Some 
few  may  have  been  benefited,  though  the  writer 
doubts  it.  It  is  recommended  to  cut  off  the  vermi- 
form appendage  in  the  end  of  the  penis,  and  to  slit 
the  penis,  opening  the  urethra,  to  free  it  from  limy 
substances  that  obstruct.  The  writer  advises  pre- 
vention, and  in  his  own  experience  with  thousands 


THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  317 

of  sheep  and  lambs  under  observation  fed  by  his 
brothers  for  some  years,  good  plain  practice,  using 
the  same  water  supply,  has  resulted  in  not  one  in- 
stance of  "  water  belly. "  The  writer  has  been  in- 
formed of  other  instances  where  oat  hay  had  seem- 
ingly caused  this  disorder  without  the  accompani- 
ment of  an  overdose  of  salt. 

In  not  one  instance  in  thousands  will  the  use  of 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  with  corn  silage  in  not  too 
great  quantity  and  corn,  with  oats  or  bran  if  de- 
sired, cause  this  disorder. 

This  is  not  a  treatise  on  starvation,  but  it  may 
be  as  well  to  drop  here  a  hint  that  sheep  that  have 
been  starved  near  to  death  for  some  time  are  not 
usually  profitable  animals  to  buy,  since  they  take 
a  long  time  to  recover  and  many  will  die  in  the 
process  unless  great  care  is  used  in  building  them 
up  again.  The  writer  has  known  instances  of  fam- 
ishing sheep  being  bought  for  a  few  cents  each  on 
some  dried-up  and  overstocked  range,  shipped  to 
other  more  fruitful  ranges  distant  some  ways  and 
there  turned  out  on  good  grass.  They  died  rapidly, 
however,  and  continued  to  die  for  some  time  after 
being  placed  on  the  good  feed. 

IMPORTANCE   OF  POST-MORTEM  DISSECTION". 

The  novice  in  sheep  breeding  and  feeding,  or  the 
old  hand  for  that  matter,  should  take  frequent  op- 
portunity of  post-mortem  examination  of  a  sheep 
recently  dead,  seeking  to  see  whether  the  cause  of 
death  is  from  disordered  digestion  or  parasitic  in- 


318  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

fection.  It  is  useless  to  dissect  a  sheep  that  has 
been  dead  for  some  days,  and  even  after  the  lapse 
of  a  few  hours  there  will  often  be  misleading  ap- 
pearances, as  of  blood  settling  in  one  part  or  an- 
other, that  will  cause  him  to  form  very  curious  con- 
clusions as  to  the  cause  of  death  and  miss  the  real 
cause  entirely.  It  would  be  amusing  if  it  were  not 
so  annoying  to  read  the  letters  from  sheep  owners 
attempting  to  describe  the  symptoms  of  their  sick 
sheep  and  the  results  found  after  making  crude 
post-mortem  examination. 

Let  us  rest  the  case  here;  that  only  careful,  reg- 
ular and  judicious  feeding  will  prevent  death  in  the 
barn  and  feedlot  and  that  medication  for  "water 
belly"  or  retention  of  urine  and  for  serious  indi- 
gestion has  never  yet  proved  of  use.  The  fact  is 
that  the  sheep  suffering  from  slight  indigestion  is 
not  readily  detected  among  hundreds,  and  when  its 
case  is  obvious  it  is  generally  too  far  gone  to  be 
helped  by  any  known  treatment  whatever. 

OTHER    DISEASES    OF    SHEEP. 

Of  a  long  list  of  diseases  that  sheep  may  some- 
times be  afflicted  with,  such  as  rheumatism,  apo- 
plexy, goitre,  pining,  humping,  erysipelas,  actino- 
mycosis,  tetanus,  rabies,  .sheep  pox,  and  a  lot  of 
other  diseases  usually  catalogued,  the  writer  has 
seldom  seen  an  instance  in  his  own  flocks,  and  if  he 
had  seen  it  would  have  felt  powerless  to  help,  with 
all  the  knowledge  of  specialists  available.  Sheep 
are  said  to  suffer  sometimes  from  blackleg,  but  it 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  319 

is  rarely  if  ever  reported  in  America,  and  in  Eng- 
land, on  the  extremely  fertile  pastures  of  Kent, 
sheep  suffer  from  anthrax.  This  disease  is  rare  in- 
deed in  America  among  sheep. 

Sheep  do  not  suffer  from  tuberculosis,  at  least 
the  disease  is  exceedingly  rare  among  them  in 
America  or  elsewhere. 

In  truth,  of  the  long  list  of  diseases  usually  cata- 
logued as  occurring  in  sheep  the  shepherd  will  not 
in  his  lifetime  observe  more  than  one  or  two,  always 
excepting  the  diseases  that  come  from  internal  or 
external  parasites,  from  unwise  feeding  and  from 
garget  of  the  udder. 

It  is  wise,  therefore,  to  study  carefully  the  ques- 
tion of  the  internal  parasite  and  to  learn  ways  of 
management  that  will  avoid  them.  This  learned,  all 
the  long  catalogue  of  diseases  may  repose  serenely 
upon  the  library  shelf,  since  the  occurrence  of  an 
instance  of  any  of  them  save  one  in  the  flock  will 
be  of  the  rarest. 

GAKGET  OK   MAMMITIS. 

This  is  a  disease  that  affects  the  udders  of  the 
very  best  and  largest  milking  ewes,  preferring  those 
that  are  best  bred  and  most  coddled.  The  symp- 
toms are  a  hard,  distended  udder,  from  which 
watery  or  serum-like  milk  may  be  drawn,  which 
often  becomes  streaked  with  blood  and  sometimes 
with  pus.  The  flesh  of  the  udder  is  often  red  or 
purple  and  upon  pressure  can  be  dented  with  the 
hand.  The  ewe  has  fever  and  distress,  milk  secre- 


320  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

tion  ceases,  the  udder  mortifies  and  if  the  ewe  lives 
long  enough  it  sloughs  off,  leaving  a  sore  slow  to 
heal.  In  mild  cases  the  symptoms  are  very  much 
less  severe  and  the  ewe  soon  recovers,  losing  per- 
haps the  use  of  one  quarter  of  her  udder. 

One  of  the  causes  that  led  the  author  to  attempt 
this  work  was  his  despair  of  finding  light  on  this 
and  some  other  subjects  in  any  existent  book  that 
had  come  to  his  notice.  The  causes  usually  assigned 
to  the  production  of  garget  are  lying  on  the  cold 
ground,  bunting  by  lambs  or  from  having  too  much 
milk  for  the  lamb  to  take  clean.  Doubtless  all  these 
things  are  evils,  but  the  writer  is  convinced  that 
the  cause  of  garget  is  something  quite  apart  from 
any  of  them. 

Probably  there  are  two  forms  of  garget,  caused 
by  different  things  and  running  different  courses. 
Too  much  milk  in  the  udder  caused  by  the  death  or 
removal  of  a  lamb,  may  cause  caked  bag  and  injure 
a  portion  of  the  udder,  but  that  is  a  far  different 
disease  from  the  malignant  garget  that  has  often 
nearly  broken  the  heart  of  the  writer  and  of  his 
younger  brother,  upon  whose  shoulders  the  mantle 
of  shepherding  on  Woodland  Farm  has  fallen.  In- 
deed, excepting  that  the  seat  of  the  disease  is  in 
the  udder,  there  are  no  symptoms  in  common  with 
the"  two  diseases.  The  writer  has  never  seen  a  case 
of  caked  bag  result  fatally  and  but  one  or  two  of 
real  garget  recover — those  after  a  long  period  of 
healing  when  the  entire  udder  had  sloughed  off. 

The  writer  believes  that  all  the  cases  of  malig- 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  321 

nant  garget  that  have  come  under  his  observation 
have  had  a  common  cause  (not  one  mentioned  in  the 
hooks),  a  sudden  increase  i^i  the  food  of  the  ewe, 
resulting  in  perhaps  some  morbid  change  in  her 
blood  that  going  to  the  udder,  shortly  after  her 
lambing  (the  period  has  sometimes  been  as  long 
perhaps  as  two  weeks  thereafter)  and  finding  there 
the  causative  germ  has  set  up  there  the  great  and 
rapid  destruction  of  live  tissue  that  is  seen.  Doubt- 
less the  disease  is  caused  by  the  multiplication  of 
microbes  coming  from  an  introduced  germ,  equally 
doubtless  the  conditions  must  be  right  for  the  de- 
velopment of  that  germ.  And  the  right  conditions 
seem  to  be  the  derangement  of  the  blood  by  too 
much  food,  especially  by  feeding  with  corn  (maize). 

A  skilled  veterinarian  once  related  to  the  writer 
that  he  had  never  dissected  the  udder  of  a  cow 
without  finding  therein,  within  the  milk  ducts, 
germs  or  bacteria  that  he  considered  the  agents 
that  cause  bovine  garget.  How  the  germs  got  there 
he  could  not  tell.  When  conditions  were  right  for 
the  germ  it  multiplied  and  did  its  work  of  destruc- 
tion. When  conditions  were  right  for  the  cow  it 
remained,  waiting.  This  is  probably  the  explana- 
tions also  in  the  case  of  the  ewe. 

Corn  feeding  of  milking  ewes  has  apparently  in- 
duced most  of  the  cases  of  malignant  garget  that 
have  come  under  the  writer's  observation.  Indeed 
he  has  seen  a  fine  ewe,  proud  of  her  two  beautiful 
lambs,  with  an  udder  like  a  Jersey  cow,  break  into 
the  lot  of  feeding  lambs  and  gorge  herself  with  corn  j 


322  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

he  has  predicted  at  once  that  she  would  come  down 
with  garget,  and  has  seen  his  sombre  prediction  ver- 
ified; has  had  the  sad  task  of  trying  to  find  mothers 
for  the  two  worse  than  orphans  and  nursed  the 
mother  for  weeks  till  at  last,  ghost  of  her  former 
self,  she  went  with  the  flock  again,  her  udder  com- 
pletely gone  and  only  a  partly  healed  surface  to 
show  where  it  had  sloughed  off. 

The  books  prescribe  for  malignant  garget  hot 
water,  camphor,  applied  externally,  and  epsom  salts 
and  iron  and  quinine  taken  internally.  The  writer 
after  faithful  efforts  with  hot  water  and  all  the  rest 
of  the  remedies  does  not  feel  that  he  has  ever  in 
one  instance  even  mitigated  the  horrors  of  this  form 
of  garget,  so  will  not  burden  the  reader  with  his 
recipes.  Let  the  shepherd  experiencing  his  first 
instance  of  trouble  resolve  that  hereafter  his  ewes 
shall  have  the  most  gradual  increase  in  feed  after 
lambing;  that  they  will  be  given  little  corn  and 
more  bran,  oats  and  early-cut  clover  or  alfalfa  hay, 
with  roots  or  silage  to  make  milk  and  that  by  this 
means  he  can  prevent  future  inflictions  of  this  na- 
ture. 

For  the  simpler  forms  of  caked  bag,  however,  hot 
water  applications  are  doubtless  good,  with  rub- 
bings of  camphor  and  belladonna,  and  some  have 
recommended  counter  irritants  like  kerosene  oil. 
This  form  will  never  occur  either  if  the  shepherd 
will  keep  the  ewe  milked  out  after  lambing,  arid 
perhaps  sometimes  just  before  lambing  if  she  is  a 
wonderful  milker,  and  will  feed  right,  taking  care 


THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  323 

also  at  weaning  time  that  the  udder  does  not  become 
congested  with  undrawn  milk. 

GEUB    IN    THE    HEAD. 

Most  of  the  sheep  books  have  chapters  on  this 
disease.  It  seems  therefore  the  duty  of  the  writer 
to  speak  of  it  also,  though  he  must  confess  that  his 
practical  experience  with  the  pest  has  been  very 
small.  This  may  be  because  his  flocks  have  almost 
always  had  shade  or  dark  barn  basements  in  which 
to  lie  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  conditions  not  con- 
ducive to  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  that  hatching 
in  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep  crawl  up  into  the  sinuses 
of  the  nose  and  form  the  mature  grubs.  It  may  be, 
also,  that  well  nourished  sheep  the  more  easily  repel 
the  grubs,  or  endure  them  with  least  inconvenience. 

There  is  no  cure  for  grubs,  once  they  are  estab- 
lished. They  cannot  crawl  into  the  brain  of  the 
sheep.  They  will  come  out  of  their  own  accord  in 
due  time.  They  change  into  a  fly  that  in  turn  lays 
eggs  for  more  grubs.  You  cannot  do  anything  ex- 
cept to  feed  well  the  sheep.  "Grub  in  the  belly  is 
a  cure  for  grub  in  the  head"  is  an  old  saying.  Tar 
on  the  noses  will  let  the  sheep  eat  in  comfort;  once 
shepherds  bored  holes  in  logs  and  put  salt  in  the 
bottom  of  the  holes  and  pine  tar  around  them. 
Sheep  eating  the  salt  got  the  tar  around  their  nos- 
trils. These  supplies  needed  replenishing  daily,  or 
oftener.  Easier  is  the  darkened  shed  for  the  sheep 
to  lie  in.  The  shepherd  is  apt  to  forget  to  freshen 
the  tar.  Moreover  the  shade,  especially  the  dark- 


324  SHEEP   FARMING   IN    AMERICA 

ened  barn  basement,  conduces  to  the  general  comfort 
and  thrift  of  the  sheep. 

LIVER  FLUKE. "THE  EOT." 

This  terrible  disease  has  caused  in  the  past  great 
havoc  in  the  old  world.  It  is  less  prevalent  there 
since  men  underdrained  their  lands.  It  is  a  para- 
sitic disease;  the  parasite  passing  one  stage  of  its 
life  in  the  liver  of  the  sheep,  the  other  in  the  body 
of  a  snail.  If  there  is  no  water  for  the  snail  (a 
water  species  is  chosen)  the  flukes  cannot  propa- 
gate. There  is  very  little  if  any  of  the  disease  in 
America. 

NODULAR  DISEASE. 

This  is  the  disease  commonly  called  by  butchers 
"knotty  guts."  It  is  characterized  by  small  tu- 
mors on  the  intestines,  the  tumors  filled  with  a 
greenish  cheesy  substance.  The  disease  is  caused 
by  a  small  worm  about  an  inch  long,  called  oesoph- 
agostoma  columbianum.  The  worm  thrives  in  spite 
of  its  name.  This  worm  seems  a  distinctly  Ameri- 
can species,  inhabiting  deer,  goats  and  sheep,  possi- 
bly rabbits.  What  it  does  to  the  sheep  is  to  interfere 
with  the  digestion  and  assimilation  of  food.  It 
works  its  way  gradually  into  a  flock  and  brings 
ruin  to  it.  There  is  said  to  be  no  cure.  Its  prog- 
ress is  usually  slow  and  it  takes  as  a  rule  years  to 
kill  a  sheep.  The  way  of  spreading  is  by  infecting 
the  soil  and  grass  through  the  excrements  of  the 
afflicted  sheep.  Therefore  when  sheep  are  so  man- 
aged that  lambs  do  not  graze  much  behind  their 


THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  325 

mothers  they  will  not  become  affected.  Presuma- 
bly the  contamination  of  the  soil  will  not  last  longer 
than  one  year.  This  point  we  hope  will  be  demon- 
strated by  onr  national  or  state  experiment  stations 
before  long.  It  is  a  vital  necessity  to  know  that  of 
both  the  nodular  disease  and  the  stomach  worm. 
Thus  it  is  evident  that  a  healthy  flock  can  be  pro- 
duced by  keeping  apart  the  infection-free  young 
sheep  from  the  infected  older  ones,  and  fattening 
and  marketing  the  older  ones  as  fast  as  practi- 
cable. Little  or  nothing  in  the  way  of  medication 
can  be  done  to  cure  the  afflicted  sheep.  Prevention 
of  the  disease  by  right  treatment  of  the  young  ones 
is  the  thing  to  be  aimed  at. 

TAPEWOKMS. 

There  are  occasionally  outbreaks  of  disease 
caused  by  tapeworms.  Montana  and  the  Dakotas 
have  suffered  from  these  outbreaks,  also  various 
regions  in  the  eastern  states.  The  writer  has  never 
observed  a  case  of  this  kind  upon  the  farm  occu- 
pied by  himself  and  his  brothers  and  attributes  this 
freedom  from  infection  in  part  at  least  to  the  free 
feeding  of  pumpkins  in  the  fall  of  almost  every 
year.  Pumpkin  seeds  are  well-known  vermifuges 
of  great  value. 

The  tapeworm  of  sheep,  taenia  expansa,  varies 
in  length  from  three  to  six  yards.  It  is  from  one 
twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  breadth  at  the  head  to 
one-half  an  inch  at  the  tail.  In  appearance  it  is  a 
dull  white.  It  causes  scouring,  loss  of  red  blood, 


326  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

white  skin,  emaciation,  weakness  and  sometimes 
death. 

Treatment  should  be  given  to  each  one  of  the 
affected  flock.  Prepare  them  for  treatment  by 
fasting  for  12  hours.  After  being  treated  they 
should  be  confined  for  24  hours  so  that  the  seg- 
ments of  the  tapeworm  expelled  will  not  be  scat- 
tered over  the  fields  to  further  infect  them.  The 
sheep  should  after  treatment  has  been  deemed  sat- 
isfactory be  put  on  clean  fresh  ground. 

Dr.  Eushworth  always  prescribes  kamala  for 
tapeworms.  The  dose  is  three  drams  mixed  well 
in  three  ounces  of  linseed  gruel,  this  dose  for  adult 
sheep.  Lambs  will  require  from  one  to  two 
drams,  according  to  their  size. 

Any  medicine  administered  to  a  sheep  should  be 
given  with  the  sheep  standing  in  a  natural  position, 
with  its  head  raised  not  too  high,  and  given  slowly, 
so  that  it  may  pass  at  once  into  the  fourth  stomach. 
If  it  passes  into  the  paunch  it  will  probably  not  do 
much  good. 

If  the  kamala  does  not  prove  effective  Eushworth 
advises  giving  ethereal  extract  of  male  shield  fern, 
one  dram;  castor  oil,  four  ounces;  mix  and  give  as 
a  dose  to  mature  sheep.  Lambs  can  have  from  one 
to  three-fourths  of  this  dose. 

A  tonic  is  then  prescribed  consisting  of  salt,  2 
pounds ;  epsom  salts,  1  pound ;  sulphate  of  iron,  one- 
half  pound;  powdered  gentian,  one-half  pound; 
nitrate  of  potash,  4  ounces.  This  is  to  be  mixed  to- 
gether and  fed  to  100  sheep,  in  oats,  bran  or  other 


THE   DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  327 

feed.    The  writer  believes  good  feed  and  change  of 
pasture  will  make  unnecessary  much  tonic. 

HUSK,  HOOSE  OR  PARASITIC  BRONCHITIS. 

There  is  a  minute  parasitic  worm  called  Strong- 
ylus  filaria  that  inhabits  the  bronchial  tubes,  caus- 
ing the  animal  to  cough  and  run  at  the  nose,  some- 
times bringing  death.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer 
this  is  fortunately  not  a  very  prevalent  disease  in 
America.  The  remedy  is  thought  to  be  to  fumigate 
with  sulphur.  The  writer  has  tried  the  remedy  and 
though  the  lambs  treated  did  not  have  the  disease 
for  which  he  treated  them  they  mostly  survived 
the  operation.  What  they  had,  and  what  most 
coughing,  emaciated  lambs  have,  is  a  related  para- 
site, of  far  more  import  to  us  all,  the  dreaded  stom- 
ach worm. 

THE   STOMACH   WORM. 

This  little  worm  is  but  %  of  an  inch  long  and 
about  as  thick  as  a  hair.  It  lives  in  the  fourth 
stomach  and  especially  afflicts  lambs.  It  causes  the 
diseases  (or  symptoms,  rather)  of  " paper  skin," 
" black  scours, "  "lamb  cholera"  and  so  on.  It 
attacks  lambs  at  any  age  after  they  begin  to  nibble 
grass  until  cool  weather  comes  in  the  fall.  It  is 
the  smallest  parasite  yet  mentioned  in  this  list  of 
diseases  and  has  wrought  a  hundred  times  the  havoc 
that  all  others  have  together.  It  has  devastated 
whole  regions  so  that  the  sheep  industry  has  been 
given  up  and  men  have  taken  to  breeding  swine  in- 
stead. The  stomach  worm  is  responsible  for  gullied 


328  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

hillsides,  abandoned  farms,  and  boys  leaving  the 
farms.  It  is  not  a  new  pest  but  in  olden  time  when 
sheep  suffered  from  it  men  did  not  know  the  cause. 
Many  years  ago  it  swept  over  Ohio,  decimating  the 
Merino  flocks,  and  over  all  the  states  of  the  corn- 
belt.  Then  no  remedy  was  known,  nor  was  it  un- 
derstood whence  came  infection  or  how  immunity 
could  be  had.  Now  we  know  all  this  and  the  stom- 
ach worm  has  lost  some  of  its  terrors  to  the  intelli- 
gent and  watchful  shepherd. 

This  fourth  stomach  of  the  sheep  is  just  where 
the  intestines  attach  and  where  an  important  part 
of  the  digestion  takes  place.  When  it  is  filled  with 
these  tiny  worms  digestion  is  wonderfully  disturbed 
and  the  lamb  loses  tone,  the  wool  appears  dead,  the 
skin  loses  its  pinkness,  the  appetite  is  deranged. 
The  lamb  may  scour  or  may  be  constipated.  It 
eats  earth  or  rotten  wood  in  the  latter  stages  of 
the  disease.  There  may  come  a  dropsical  swelling 
beneath  the  under  jaw.  This  is  not  a  disease,  only 
a  symptom  of  the  disease. 

Depend  upon  it,  if  it  is  May,  or  from  then  till 
October,  and  your  lambs  are  droopy,  languid,  their 
wool  dead  looking,  their  skins  chalky,  they  have 
stomach  worms.  Just  catch  one,  kill  it,  dissect  it  at 
once  and  examine  the  fourth  stomach  with  care. 
You  will  surely  see  there  the  little  writhing  ser- 
pents that  do  the  mischief. 

These  worms  inhabit  old  sheep  too,  but  do  not 
do  much  harm.  The  life  history  is  like  this:  the 
worms  become  mature  in  the  body  of  the  older 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  329 

sheep  and  pass  out,  laden  with  eggs  about  to  hatch. 
The  little  worms  do  something,  we  do  not  know  what, 
to  get  back  into  the  sheep  again.  Probably  they 
crawl  up  a  little  way  on  the  grass.  The  lambs  come 
along  and  nibbling  close  on  tender  grass  where  the 
ewes'  excrements  have  been  dropped  take  in  the 
worms.  They  mature  in  the  lamb  and  raise  havoc 
there  as  we  have  said. 

Fortunately  cold  weather  either  numbs  or  de- 
stroys these  worms  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of 
infection  in  winter,  late  fall  or  early  spring. 

Elsewhere,  in  management,  the  prevention  of 
stomach  worms  is  described.  Here  we  will  concern 
ourselves  with  the  cure  of  afflicted  lambs.  The 
writer  has  dosed  hundreds.  For  a  number  of  years 
he  has  on  the  same  farm  had  no  cases  to  doctor. 
Moral:  there  is  something  in  management.  But 
there  is  something  in  cure  also.  Therefore  the 
writer  appends  parts  of  bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  prepared  by  B.  H.  Eansom, 
March,  1907.  The  writer  has  faith  in  the  gasoline 
treatment  and  was  the  first  man  in  America  to  ad- 
minister it.  His  brother  has  had  better  success 
with  carbolic  acid  than  coaltar  creosote,  using  12 
drops  for  a  mature  sheep,  given  in  milk.  The  bul- 
letin follows: 

The  stomach  worm  of  sheep,  known  to  zoologists 
as  Hsemonchus  contortus,  is  generally  recognized  as 
one  of  the  most  serious  pests  with  which  the  sheep 
raiser  has  to  contend.  Sheep  of  all  ages  are  sub- 
ject to  infection,  and  cattle  and  goats  as  well  as 


330  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

various  wild  ruminants  may  also  harbor  the  para- 
site. The  most  serious  effects  of  stomach-worm  in- 
fection are  seen  in  lambs,  while  full-grown  sheep, 
although  heavily  infested,  may  show  no  apparent 
symptoms  of  disease.  It  is  from  these,  however, 
through  the  medium  of  the  pasture,  that  the  lambs 
become  infected. 

SYMPTOMS  AND  DIAGNOSIS. 

Among  the  symptoms  which  have  been  described 
for  stomach-worm  disease  probably  the  most  fre- 
quent are  anemia,  loss  of  flesh,  general  weakness, 
dullness,  capricious  appetite,  thirst,  and  diarrhea. 
The  anemic  condition  is  seen  in  the  paleness  of  the 
skin  and  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth  and  eye, 
and  in  the  watery  swellings  which  often  develop 
under  the  lower  jaw.  A  more  certain  diagnosis 
may  be  made  by  killing  one  of  the  flock  and  opening 
the  fourth  stomach.  The  contents  of  the  fourth 
stomach  are  allowed  to  settle  gently,  and  by  care- 
fully watching  the  liquid  the  parasites,  if  present 
in  any  considerable  numbers,  will  be  seen  actively 
wriggling  about  like  little  snakes  from  one-half  to 
114  inches  long  and  about  as  thick  as  an  ordinary 
pin. 

LIFE  HISTOEY  OF  THE  STOMACH  WOEM. 

The  worms  in  the  stomach  produce  eggs  of  mi- 
croscopic size,  which  pass  out  of  the  body  in  the 
droppings  and  are  thus  scattered  broadcast  over 
the  pasture.  If  the  temperature  is  above  40°  to  50° 
F.  the  eggs  hatch  out,  requiring  from  a  few  hours 


THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  331 

to  two  weeks,  according  as  the  temperature  is  high 
or  low.  When  the  temperature  is  below  40°  F.  the 
eggs  remain  dormant,  and  in  this  condition  may  re- 
tain their  vitality  for  two  or  three  months,  after- 
wards hatching  out  if  the  weather  becomes  warmer. 
Freezing  or  drying  soon  kills  the  unhatched  eggs. 
The  tiny  worm  which  hatches  from  the  eggs  feeds 
upon  the  organic  matter  in  the  manure,  and  grows 
until  it  is  nearly  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  length. 
Further  development  then  ceases  until  the  worm  is 
swallowed  by  a  sheep  or  other  ruminant,  after 
which  it  again  begins  to  grow,  and  reaches  matu- 
rity in  the  fourth  stomach  of  its  host  in  two  to 
three  weeks.  The  chances  of  the  young  worms  be- 
ing swallowed  are  greatly  increased  by  the  fact  that 
they  crawl  up  blades  of  grass  whenever  sufficient 
moisture — such  as  dew,  rain,  or  fog — is  present, 
provided  also  that  the  temperature  is  above  40°  F. 
When  the  temperature  is  below  40°  F.  the  forms 
are  inactive. 

The  young  worms  which  have  reached  the  stage 
when  they  are  ready  to  be  taken  into  the  body  are 
greatly  resistant  to  cold  and  dryness;  they  will 
stand  repeated  freezing,  and  have  been  kept  in  a 
dried  condition  for  thirty-five  days,  afterwards  re- 
viving when  moisture  was  added.  At  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  70°  F.  young  worms  have  been  kept 
alive  for  as  long  as  six  months,  and  the  infection 
in  inclosures  (near  Washington,  D.  C.)  which  has 
been  pastured  by  infested  sheep  did  not  die  out  in 
over  seven  months,  including  the  winter,  the  inclo- 


332  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

sures  having  been  left  vacant  from  Oct.  25  to 
June  16.  It  is  uncertain  whether  infection  in  fields 
from  which  sheep  have  been  removed  will  die  out 
more  rapidly  during  warm  weather  or  during  cold 
weather ;  experiments  on  this  point  are  under  way, 
but  have  not  been  sufficiently  completed  for  definite 
statements  to  be  made.  It  is,  however,  safe  to  say 
that  a  field  which  has  had  no  sheep,  cattle,  or  goats 
upon  it  for  a  year  will  be  practically  free  from  in- 
fection, and  fields  which  have  had  no  sheep  or  other 
ruminants  upon  them  following  cultivation  may  also 
be  safely  used.  The  time  required  for  a  clean  pas- 
ture to  become  infectious  after  infested  sheep  are 
placed  upon  it  depends  upon  the  temperature ;  that 
is,  the  field  does  not  become  infectious  until  the 
eggs  of  the  parasites  contained  in  the  droppings 
of  the  sheep  have  hatched  out  and  the  young  worms 
have  developed  to  the  final  larval  stage,  and  the 
rapidity  of  this  development  depends  upon  the  tem- 
perature. It  may  be  stated  here  that  neither  the 
eggs  nor  the  newly  hatched  worms  are  infectious 
and  only  those  worms  which  have  reached  the  final 
larval  stage  are  able  to  continue  their  development 
when  swallowed.  This  final  larval  stage  is  reached 
in  three  to  four  days  after  the  eggs  have  passed 
out  of  the  body  of  the  host  if  the  temperature  re- 
mains constantly  at  about  95°  F.  At  70°  F.,  six 
to  fourteen  days  are  required,  and  at  46°  to  57° 
F.,  aggregating  about  50°  F.,  three  to  four  weeks 
are  necessary  for  the  eggs  to  hatch  and  the  young 
worms  to  develop  to  the  infectious  stage.  At  tern- 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  333 

peratures  below  40°  F.,  as  already  stated,  the  eggs 
remain  dormant. 

METHODS   OF  PKEVENTING   INFECTION. 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  statements  that 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  under 
usual  climatic  conditions,  infested  and  non-infested 
sheep  may  be  placed  together  in  clean  fields  the  last 
of  October  or  first  of  November  and  kept  there  until 
March  or  even  later,  according  to  the  weather,  with 
little  or  no  danger  of  the  non-infested  sheep  be- 
coming infected.  If  moved  then  to  another  clean 
field  they  may  remain  there  nearly  the  entire  month 
of  April  before  there  is  danger  of  infection.  From 
the  1st  of  May  on  through  the  summer  the  pastures 
become  infectious  much  more  quickly  after  infested 
sheep  are  placed  upon  them,  and  during  May  it 
would  be  necessary  to  move  the  sheep  at  the  end  of 
every  two  weeks,  in  June  at  the  end  of  every  ten 
days,  and  in  July  and  August  at  the  end  of  each 
week,  in  order  to  prevent  the  non-infested  sheep 
from  becoming  infected  from  the  worms  present 
in  the  rest  of  the  flock.  After  the  1st  of  September 
the  period  may  again  be  lengthened.  This  method 
of  preventing  infection  in  lambs  would  require  a 
considerable  number  of  small  pastures  or  subdivi 
sions  of  large  pastures,  and  in  many  instances  could 
not  be  profitably  employed,  but  in  cases  where  it 
could  be  used  it  would  undoubtedly  prove  very  effec- 
tive. By  the  time  the  next  lamb  crop  appeared  the 
pastures  used  the  year  before  would  have  re- 


334  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

mained  vacant  long  enough  for  the  infection  to  have 
disappeared,  and  would  consequently  again  be  ready 
for  use.  By  continuing  this  rotation  from  year  to 
year,  not  only  would  each  crop  of  lambs  be  protected 
from  infection,  but  as  reinfection  of  the  infested 
ewe  flock  is  prevented  at  the  same  time,  the  para- 
site would  in  a  few  years  be  entirely  eradicated 
from  the  flock  and  pastures.  The  result  to  be  gained 
is  worth  the  effort  where  this  plan  is  practicable. 

If  such  frequent  rotation  is  not  possible  or  prac- 
ticable, a  smaller  number  of  pastures  may  be  util- 
ized, after  the  ewe  flock  has  been  treated  with  ver- 
mifuges. The  treatment  may  be  given  either  before 
or  after  the  birth  of  the  lambs.  If  before,  the  ewes 
should  be  treated  before  pregnancy  is  too  far  ad- 
vanced in  order  to  avoid  possible  bad  results  from 
the  handling  necessary  in  treatment.  Probably  the 
best  time  for  treatment  is  late  in  the  fall  or  early 
in  the  winter.  The  treated  sheep  should  be  placed 
immediately  on  clean  pasture  in  order  to  avoid  re- 
infection. The  object  of  treating  the  ewes  is  to  get 
rid  of  the  worms  with  which  they  are  infested,  and 
thus  remove  the  source  from  which  the  pasture  be- 
comes contamimnated.  If  it  were  possible  by  treat- 
ment to  entirely  free  the  old  sheep  from  stomach 
worms,  it  is  evident  that  the  lambs  would  remain 
free  from  infection,  provided,  of  course,  that  the 
flock  were  afterwards  kept  on  clean  pasture.  Un- 
fortunately, there  is  no  vermifuge  known  which  can 
always  be  depended  upon  to  remove  all  of  the 
worms,  but  it  is  possible  to  get  rid  of  most  of  them, 


THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  335 

and  thus  greatly  reduce  the  amount  of  infection  to 
which  the  lambs  will  be  exposed. 

Two  other  methods  may  be  suggested  by  which 
lambs  can  be  kept  free  from  infection  with  stomach 
worms. 

1.  It  is  assumed  that  a  large  pasture  is  available 
which  has  had  no  sheep,  goats,  or  cattle  upon  it  for 
a  year,  if  a  permanent  pasture,  or  since  cultivation, 
if  a  seeded  pasture.  This  pasture  is  subdivided  into 
two  by  a  double  line  of  fence,  and  a  drainage  ditch 
is  run  along  the  alley  between  the  two  fences.  At 
one  end  of  the  alley  between  the  two  subdivisions  a 
small  yard  is  constructed,  communicating  with 
each  of  the  subdivisions  by  means  of  a  gate.  When 
the  lambs  are  born  they  are  placed  in  one  of  the 
subdivisions  and  the  ewes  are  placed  in  the  other. 
The  small  yard  should  be  kept  free  of  vegetation 
and  must  not  drain  into  the  lamb  pasture.  As 
often  as  necessary  the  lambs  are  allowed  in  the 
small  yard  with  the  ewes  for  sucking.  The  rest  of 
the  time  the  lambs  and  the  ewes  are  kept  separate 
in  their  respective  pastures.  By  this  arrangement 
the  lambs  are  exposed  to  infection  only  while  they 
are  in  the  small  yard,  where  they  may  become  in- 
fected either  by  embryos  of  the  stomach  worm  pres- 
ent on  the  manure-soiled  skin  of  the  infested  ewe, 
or  by  embryos  picked  up  from  the  ground  which 
has  been  contaminated  by  the  droppings  of  the 
ewes.  The  chances  of  infection  from  the  skin  of 
the  ewe  are  so  slight  that  in  practice  this  source 
of  infection  need  not  be  considered.  The  danger 


336  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

of  infection  from  the  ground  may  be  avoided  by 
frequently  removing  the  manure  from  the  yard  and 
keeping  the  surface  sprinkled  with  lime  and  salt. 
The  lambs  and  ewes  will  soon  learn  the  way  to  their 
proper  pastures,  and  after  a  few  days  little  diffi- 
culty will  be  experienced  in  separating  them  each 
time  after  the  lambs  are  through  sucking. 

2.  Another  plan  which  may  be  followed  where 
the  climatic  conditions  are  suitable — that  is,  in  re- 
gions where  there  is  a  cold  winter  season — is  that  of 
having  the  lambs  born  at  a  time  of  year  when  there 
will  be  no  danger  of  their  becoming  infected  during 
the  sucking  period,  and  weaning  and  separating 
them  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  before  the  advent  of 
warm  weather.  Under  the  usual  climatic  conditions 
of  the  State  of  Ohio,  for  instance,  if  the  lambs  are 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  October  or  the  first  of 
November  they  may  remain  with  the  ewes  on  fields 
which  have  not  been  previously  occupied  by  sheep, 
goats  or  cattle  within  a  year — or,  if  cultivated  fields, 
since  cultivation — until  the  following  March  without 
danger  of  becoming  infected,  since  the  eggs  in  the 
droppings  of  the  infested  ewes  will  not  hatch  out 
during  this  time  of  year  because  of  the  cold  weather. 
The  use  of  fields  not  previously  occupied  by  sheep, 
goats,  or  cattle  within  a  year,  or  since  cultivation, 
is  necessary,  since  otherwise  the  fields  might  be  al- 
ready infected  with  young  worms  which  had  hatched 
out  and  reached  the  infectious  stage  before  the  be- 
ginning of  cold  weather,  and  the  lambs  would  pos- 
sibly be  liable  to  infection  from  picking  up  these 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  337 

young  worms,  which  are  not  killed  by  cold  weather 
after  they  have  reached  the  final  stage  of  larval 
development.  When  they  are  weaned  the  lambs 
must,  of  course,  be  placed  on  clean  pasture,  if  they 
are  to  continue  free  from  infection.  With  this 
method  only  two  clean  pastures  are  necessary,  one 
in  which  the  ewes  and  lambs  are  placed  in  the  fall, 
and  another  for  the  lambs  when  they  are  weaned  in 
March.  Thus  started  in  life  free  from  the  chance  of 
infection,  the  shepherd  may  more  surely  count  on 
profit  from  his  lambs. 

Fortunately  for  this  scheme,  it  is  always  possible 
to  have  lambs  born  early  during  the  winter  season; 
and  with  additional  clean  pastures  a  modification 
of  the  foregoing  method  may  be  used  in  the  case 
of  lambs  born  toward  the  end  of  the  winter  or  in 
the  spring.  In  the  northern  United  States  lambs 
born  the  first  of  February  for  example,  may  be 
kept  with  their  mothers  in  a  clean  field  or  pasture 
until  the  last  of  March,  as  in  the  case  of  those 
born  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  but  unlike  the  latter 
they  will  not  then  be  old  enough  to  wean.  Accord- 
ingly they  are  not  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
flock,  but  the  ewes  and  lambs  are  moved  together 
to  a  second  clean  pasture  April  1.  May  1  they  are 
moved  to  a  third  clean  pasture,  May  15  they  are 
moved  again,  and  finally  the  lambs  are  weaned  June 
1  at  the  age  of  four  months,  and  moved  by  them- 
selves to  a  clean  pasture.  In  the  case  of  lambs 
born  the  first  of  March  and  weaned  the  first  of  July 
three  additional  clean  pastures  would  be  required 


338  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

for  use  during  the  month  of  June,  and  with  later 
lambs  a  still  greater  number  of  pastures  would  be 
necessary. 

TREATMENT    FOE    STOMACH    WORMS. 

Among  the  remedies  which  may  be  used  to  re- 
move stomach  worms  may  be  mentioned  coaltar 
creosote,  bluestone,  and  gasoline. 

The  animals  to  be  treated  should  be  deprived  of 
feed  for  twelve  to  sixteen  or  even  twenty-four  hours 
before  'they  are  dosed,  and  in  case  bluestone  is  used 
should  receive  no  water  on  the  day  they  are  dosed, 
either  before  or  after  dosing.  In  drenching,  a  long- 
necked  bottle  or  a  drenching  tube  may  be  used.  In 
case  a  bottle  is  used  the  dose  to  be  given  may  be 
first  measured  off,  poured  into  the  bottle,  and  the 
point  marked  on  the  outside  of  the  bottle  with  a 
file,  so  that  subsequent  doses  may  be  measured  in 
the  bottle  itself.  A  simple  form  of  drenching  tube 
consists  of  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  about  3  feet 
long  and  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  with  an  ordi- 
nary tin  funnel  inserted  in  one  end  and  a  piece  of 
brass  or  iron  tubing  4  to  6  inches  long  and  of 
suitable  diameter  inserted  in  the  other  end.  In  use 
the  metal  tube  is  placed  in  the  animal's  mouth  be- 
tween the  back  teeth,  and  the  dose  is  poured  into 
the  funnel,  which  is  either  held  by  an  assistant  or 
fastened  to  a  post.  The  flow  of  liquid  through  the 
tube  is  controlled  by  pinching  the  rubber  tubing 
near  the  point  of  union  with  the  metal  tube.  It  is 
important  not  to  raise  the  animal's  head  too  high 
on  account  of  the  danger  of  the  dose  entering  the 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  339 

lungs.  The  nose  should  not  be  raised  higher  than 
the  level  of  the  eyes.  The  animal  may  be  dosed 
either  standing  on  all  fours  or  set  upon  its  haunches. 
It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  if  the  dose 
is  taken  quietly  most  of  it  will  pass  directly  to  the 
fourth  stomach  when  the  animal  is  dosed  in  a  stand- 
ing position,  and  that  when  the  animal  is  placed  on 
its  haunches  only  a  part  of  the  dose  passes  imme- 
diately to  the  fourth  stomach.  From  this  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  position  on  all  fours  is  preferable, 
as  more  of  the  dose  passes  to  the  place  where  its 
action  is  required. 

Great  care  should  be  used  not  only  in  dosing  to 
avoid  the  entrance  of  the  liquid  into  the  lungs,  but 
also  in  the  preparation  and  administration  of  the 
remedy  so  that  the  solution  may  not  be  too  strong 
or  the  dose  too  large. 

COALTAR   CREOSOTE. 

Good  results  have  been  obtained  from  a  single 
dose  of  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  coaltar  creosote. 
This  solution  is  made  by  shaking  together  1  ounce 
of  coaltar  creosote  and  99  ounces  (6  pints  3  ounces) 
of  water.  The  doses  of  this  1  per  cent  mixture 
recommended  by  Stiles  are  as  follows: 

Lambs  4  to  12  months  old 2  to    4  ounces. 

Yearling   sheep   and   above 3  to     5  ounces. 

Calves   3   to   8   months   old 5  to  10  ounces. 

Yearling    steers    1  pint. 

Two-year-olds    and   above 1  quart. 

CoBltar  creosote  seems  almost  identical  (as  pur- 
chased usually)  with  the  coaltar  dips  on  the  market. 


340  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

C.  C.  Jones  of  Filmore  Farms  has  had  splendid  suc- 
cess with  it.  In  a  discussion  of  parasites  and  their 
preventive,  Mr.  Jones  said  he  used  coaltar  dip,  mix- 
ing 1  ounce  of  the  dip  with  4  ounces  of  water,  giv- 
ing it  as  a  drench,  with  apparent  good  results.  He 
feeds  tobacco  regularly  and  has  lost  no  lambs.  He 
decries  late  lambing  and  urges  that  Dorsets  be 
lambed  from  September  to  March,  and  none  allowed 
to  come  later  than  the  middle  of  March.  He  states 
that  the  prescribed  dose  of  coaltar  dip  is  for  a  lamb 
4  to  6  months  old. 

BLUESTOKE. 

Bluestone,  or  copper  sulphate,  has  been  exten- 
sively used  in  South  Africa  in  the  treatment  of 
sheep  for  stomach  worms  and  is  recommended  by 
the  colonial  veterinary  surgeon  of  Cape  Colony  as 
the  best  and  safest  remedy.  His  directions  are  to 
take  1  pound  avoirdupois  of  pure  bluestone,  powder 
it  fine,  and  dissolve  in  nine  and  one-half  United 
States  gallons  of  warm  water.  It  is  better  to  first 
dissolve  the  bluestone  in  2  to  4  quarts  of  boiling 
water,  then  add  the  remaining  quantity  in  cold  wa- 
ter, and  mix  thoroughly.  This  solution  is  given  in 
the  following-sized  doses : 

Lambs   3   months  old •%  ounce. 

Lambs   6   months  old 1  %  ounces. 

Sheep  12  months  old 2%  ounces. 

Sheep   18  months   old .3       ounces. 

Sheep  24  months  old 3%  ounces. 

In  making  up  the  solution  only  clear  blue  crystals 
of  bluestone  should  be  used.  Bluestone  with  white 
patches  or  crusts  should  be  rejected.  It  is  espe- 


THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  341 

cially  important  that  the  Milestone  and  water  be  ac- 
curately weighed  and  measured,  and  that  the  size  of 
the  dose  be  graduated  according  to  the  age  of  the 
sheep. 

GASOLINE. 

Gasoline  is  one  of  the  most  popular  remedies  for 
stomach  worms  which  has  been  used  in  this  country 
and  has  the  particular  advantage  of  being  readily 
obtained.  It  is  important  to  repeat  the  dose  if  the 
gasoline  treatment  is  employed,  and  it  is  usual  to 
administer  the  treatment  on  three  successive  days, 
as  follows: 

The  evening  before  the  first  treatment  is  to  be 
given  the  animals  are  shut  up  without  feed  or  water 
and  are  dosed  about  10  o'clock  the  next  morning. 
Three  hours  later  they  are  allowed  feed  and  water, 
and  at  night  they  are  again  shut  up  without  feed  or 
water.  The  next  morning  the  second  dose  is  given, 
and  the  third  morning  the  third  dose,  the  treatment 
before  and  after  dosing  being  the  same  in  each  case. 

The  sizes  of  the  doses  are  as  follows: 

Lambs     V*  ounce. 

Sheep %  ounce. 

Calves    %  ounce. 

Yearling    steers    1  ounce. 

The  dose  for  each  animal  is  measured  and  mixed 
separately  in  linseed  oil,  milk,  or  flaxseed  tea,  and 
administered  by  means  of  a  bottle  or  drenching 
tube.  Gasoline  should  not  be  given  in  water. 

OTHER  REMEDIES. 

Many  other  remedies  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned here  have  been  used  in  the  treatment  of 


342  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

stomach  worm  disease  with  more  or  less  success. 
Several  of  the  coaltar  dips  on  the  market  are  rec- 
ommended by  the  manufacturers  for  the  treatment 
of  worms,  and  the  action  of  some  of  them  is  much 
the  same  as  that  of  coaltar  creosote. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  does  not  recom- 
mend the  use  of  any  particular  proprietary  remedy, 
and  as  the  action  of  some  such  agents  is  very  un- 
certain it  is  suggested  that,  if  it  is  desired  to  use 
them,  they  be  used  with  caution  and  only  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  printed  directions  on  the  package. 
Whatever  remedy  is  used,  it  is  wise  to  test  it  on 
two  or  three  animals  before  the  entire  flock  is  dosed. 

START    WITH   A   HEALTHY   FLOCK. 

It  may  be  that  the  reader  has  a  flock  of  diseased 
sheep.  He  has  had  much  trouble  with  stomach 
worms,  or  the  nodular  disease  has  invaded  the  flock, 
or  he  has  had  bad  losses  from  tapeworms.  Shall  he 
therefore  go  out  of  business? 

That,  indeed,  may  be  his  best  course.  To  get  rid 
of  the  diseased  flock,  first  fattening  the  sheep  as 
well  as  possible,  and  to  let  the  land  rest  for  two 
years  will  be  quite  sure  to  make  the  land  clean, 
ready  for  a  new  flock.  But  there  are  certain  objec- 
tions to  this  course.  First,  he  gets  out  of  touch 
with  the  sheep  industry,  and  that  is  bad.  Then  he 
begins  to  devote  his  land  to  other  purposes  and  it 
is  harder  to  again  start  with  a  flock.  And  there  is 
the  very  real  and  practical  difficulty  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  be  sure  that  the  new  flock  is  free  from 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  343 

the  enemies  that  led  to  the  discarding  of  the  old 
ones. 

The  shepherd  may  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that 
lambs  are  born  healthy  to  start  anew  with  a  clean 
flock,  even  though  the  ewes  were  tainted.  Infection 
will  not  come  from  the  mother's  milk,  unless  in  rare 
instances  from  the  fouling  of  her  udder.  If  she  has 
a  clean  bed  there  is  small  risk  of  that.  If  she  is 
scouring  she  should  not  be  put  in  the  company  of 
ewes  devoted  to  this  purpose. 

The  ewes  should  be  bred  as  early  as  practicable, 
so  that  their  lambs  will  come  if  possible  in  Novem- 
ber, December  or  January.  That  is  because  in 
northern  situations  there  is  practically  no  danger 
of  infection  anywhere,  indoors  or  out,  in  cold  weath- 
er. Ewes  and  lambs  should  all  be  well  fed  to  en- 
courage a  vigorous  growth. 

When  warm  weather  begins  to  come  in  April  the 
ewes  should  be  confined  rigidly  to  the  barn  and 
small  yard.  In  that  yard  there  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  grow  even  a  single  weed  or  spear  of  grass. 
This  rule  must  be  absolute.  The  yard  must  be  small 
and  kept  always  perfectly  clean.  If  it  is  not  the 
lambs  may  nibble  at  some  plant  and  from  its  lower 
lengths,  or  roots,  imbide  the  germs  that  we  are  seek- 
ing to  avoid. 

Nor  should  there  be  any  feed  thrown  into  the 
yard.  Furthermore,  the  hayracks  should  be  kept 
clean  and  the  water  pure  at  all  times. 

As  fast  as  ewes  cease  giving  a  good  milk  flow 
they  should  be  removed  to  another  pen  and  thus 


344  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

their  contact  removed,  with  a  per  cent  of  the  danger. 

When  grass  comes  the  lambs  should  be  taken  to 
a  field  where  no  sheep  ran  the  previous  year ;  where 
no  sheep  manure  has  been  spread  the  previous  year, 
and  where  no  stream  or  pool  could  bring  germs  from 
some  other  flock.  Once  established  there  no  other 
sheep  should  for  an  instant  be  permitted  to  mingle 
with  them. 

The  ewes,  if  there  is  room  on  the  farm,  may  be 
kept  over  for  another  crop  of  lambs,  since  it  will 
take  two  crops  to  produce  enough  ewe  lambs  to  make 
up  their  number.  After  that  all  that  are  not  of  this 
youthful  blood  and  free  from  infection  should  be 
sold  and  the  youngsters  given  possession. 

At  all  times  there  should  be  this  thought:  Has 
there  been  opportunity  during  the  past  year  for 
any  sheep  to  drop  germs  with  their  manure  upon 
this  land?  If  the  answer  is  Yes,  then  do  not  permit 
the  lambs  and  yearlings  of  the  clean  flock  to  graze 
upon  that  ground  for  an  instant. 

The  extra  cost  of  this  method  of  producing  a 
perfectly  healthly  ewe  flock  is  almost  nothing.  A 
trifle  of  care,  a  constant  thoughtfulness,  a  few  hours 
labor,  and  the  result:  a  banishment  of  the  torments 
that  render  60  per  cent  of  farm  flocks  in  the  corn- 
belt  diseased  and  comparatively  unprofitable. 

And  having  a  healthy  flock,  absolutely  without 
parasites,  they  will  remain  so  if  the  germs  are  not 
brought  in  by  something  added  to  the  flock.  It  is 
barely  possible  that  rabbits  may  carry  some  of  the 
same  parasites  that  afflict  sheep,  as  also  do  goats  and 


THE  DISEASES  OF   SHEEP  345 

deer.  Aside  from  them  there  are  no  other  carriers 
of  these  germs  so  far  as  we  know.  Unfortunately 
we  must  purchase  rams  or  else  practice  inbreeding. 
The  writer  is  inclined  to  think  that  with  strong, 
well-bred,  vigorous  stock  once  secured  it  is  wiser 
to  inbreed  for  a  time  rather  than  to  risk  purchasing 
a  new  starter  of  germs  with  an  uncertain  ram. 
However,  the  ram  himself  may  be  put  in  quarantine 
on  his  arrival,  permitted  to  associate  with  the  flock 
only  when  he  can  be  of  use  to  it  and  at  all  other 
times  have  his  own  quarters,  a  grassy  paddock  with 
shed  attached. 

Thus,  without  giving  a  dose  of  medicine  or  apply- 
ing to  the  soil  any  lime,  salt,  corrosive  sublimate  or 
iron  sulphate,  the  farm  secures  clean  pastures, 
stocked  with  clean  sheep. 

Following  the  thought  of  destroying  the  parasites 
in  the  soil,  as  is  frequently  advised,  by  applications 
of  lime,  salt  or  chemicals,  the  writer  would  call  to 
the  attention  of  the  reader  the  folly  of  the  proposal. 
There  is  in  an  acre  43,560  square  feet.  Supposing 
that  we  desired  to  purify  that  soil  to  a  depth  of  one 
foot,  not  an  unreasonable  depth,  there  is  then  to 
purify  43,560  cubic  feet  of  soil.  It  would  take  at 
least  a  pound  of  salt  to  destroy  germ  life  in  a  cubic 
foot  of  soil;  it  is  doubtful  if  that  would  suffice,  so 
that  about  21  tons  of  salt  to  the  acre  would  be  re- 
quired. Of  lime  probably  two  or  three  times  as 
much  would  be  needed,  and  when  it  comes  to  apply- 
ing chemicals  one  had  better  halt,  for  he  will  have 
destroyed  his  land  before  he  will  have  killed  the 


346  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

germs;  that  much  is  sure.  And  why  do  this  thing, 
when  all  these  germs  will  perish  (we  believe)  in  one 
year  unless  they  find  their  host,  a  sheep,  deer  or 
goat,  in  which  to  undergo  part  of  their  life  cycle? 

The  writer  is  very  glad  to  give  credit  to  Dr.  W. 
H.  Dalrymple  of  Louisiana,  for  having  performed 
by  far  the  most  useful  series  of  experiments  ever 
made  in  attempting  to  rid  sheep  of  parasites  in  much 
the  manner  that  he  has  described  in  the  foregoing 
paragraphs.  It  is  remarkable  that  a  far  southern 
state  should  undertake  a  work  fraught  with  so  much 
import  to  men  in  the  sheep  growing  regions  further 
north,  the  explanation  of  course  being  that  Dr. 
Dalrymple  is  a  Scot. 


CHAPTER    XI. 
THE  ANGOEA  AND  MILKING  GOATS. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  in  this  work  to  give  a 
little  information  concerning  the  Angora  goat, 
which  is  now  becoming  so  well  and  favorably  known. 

Indeed  the  sudden  arrival  of  the  Angora  into  pub- 
lic appreciation  and  its  very  wide  distribution  will 
make  an  interesting  chapter  in  the  history  of  Amer- 
ican live  stock. 

THE   ANGORA   GOAT. 

While  not  meaning  to  wander  far  into  the  realms 
of  goat  lore  yet  a  few  words  concerning  this  work: 
So  late  as  1897  the  first  large  number  of  goats  were 
sent  from  Texas  to  Iowa  as  an  experiment  in  brush 
destruction,  going  to  J.  E.  Standley.  These  goats 
"grubbed  the  land,  brought  in  grass  and  boarded 
themselves,  besides  yielding  a  profit."  Other  ship- 
ments followed.  They  also  were  successful.  Since 
that  time  goats  have  been  introduced  into  every 
state  and  territory  of  the  United  States  and  into 
Alaska  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Usually  they 
have  accomplished  their  object ;  they  have  destroyed 
brush,  and  grass  has  followed  in  their  footsteps. 
Then  came  a  demand  for  goats  and  inquiry  con- 
cerning them.  Several  kinds  of  disappointments 
have  followed  the  introduction  of  so-called  "An- 

(347) 


348  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

goras"  into  new  neighborhoods.  To  answer  some 
of  the  many  questions  arising  in  connection  with 
this  subject  this  chapter  is  written.  Breeders  of 
Angora  goats  should  have  one  of  the  following 
works :  "New  Industry,  or  Raising  the  Angora  Goat 
and  Mohair  for  profit, ' '  by  Wm.  L.  Black  of  Texas ; 
"Angora  Goat  Raising  and  Milch  Goats, "  by  George 
Fayette  Thompson,  or  "The  Angora  Goat,"  by  S. 
C.  C.  Schreiner  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.).  Schrein- 
er's  work  is  a  classic,  a  thing  of  beauty.  Thompson 
is  concise  and  practical,  enthusiastic  enough,  and 
tells  besides  much  about  milking  goats.  Black  is 
an  earnest  advocate  and  presents  a  great  array  of 
facts  and  examples  of  successful  practice.  I  think 
he  leaves  out  the  failures  and  some  of  the  difficulties. 

Very  extravagant  things  are  claimed  for  Angora 
goats.  It  has  been  claimed  that  they  will  shear 
from  six  to  eight  pounds  of  mohair  per  year,  worth 
—well,  all  sorts  of  prices  from  75  cents  to  $8.00. 
That  was  in  the  olden  time.  They  have  been  claimed 
to  be  immune  to  all  sickness,  hardy  as  the  common 
goat ;  that  they  will  kill  dogs  and  keep  disease  from 
among  horses ;  that  they  would  clear  land  of  brush 
and  make  delicious  mutton  at  the  same  time;  that 
they  were  very  prolific. 

Now  the  simple  truth  is  that  the  Angora  goat  is 
the  most  delicate,  though  the  most  beautiful  goat 
known.  It  is  troubled  with  all  the  diseases  that  af- 
flict sheep,  and  more  of  them.  It  is  not  very  pro- 
lific, nor  are  the  kids  very  easily  raised  in  a  cold 
and  wet  climate.  It  is  not  dog-proof,  nor  will  it 


THE  ANGORA  AND  MILKING  GOATS 


349 


350  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

serve  very  well  to  keep  dogs  from  sheep.  It  de- 
stroys brush  effectually,  if  it  can  reach  it,  but 
should  have  some  grass  along  with  the  brush  to  keep 
it  in  good  order.  And  it  shears  a  fleece  of  about  3 
pounds  that  is  worth  from  7  to.  40  cents  per  pound. 

While  the  writer  from  his  study  of  goats  believes 
his  characterizations  true,  yet  he  believes  further 
that  despite  their  delicacy  Angoras  can  be  profit- 
ably grown  in  many  states  of  the  Union.  Wherever 
there  is  rough,  dry,  brushy  land  and  grass,  they 
may  be  kept  healthy  more  readily  than  sheep, 
since  they  are  in  no  danger  from  parasitic  in- 
fection while  browsing  on  trees,  and  that  the  qual- 
ity of  their  fleeces  may  be  so  greatly  increased  by 
systematic  breeding  that  the  7-cent  fleeces  will  be- 
come extinct  and  even  the  good  fleeces  will  become 
more  valuable. 

Let  us  get  at  the  history  of  the  American  An- 
gora goat.  The  native  home  of  the  Angora  is  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  on  a  high,  dry  and  rather  cold 
plateau.  It  may  be  that  there  is  some  peculiarity 
of  the  soil  and  climate  of  that  region  or  some  men- 
tal twist  of  the  breeders  there,  since  there  are  other 
animals  found  there  that  have  the  long  silky  hair 
that  characterizes  the  true  Angora.  Cats  from  An- 
gora have  that  quality,  and  dogs  are  said  sometimes 
to  possess  it.  The  ancient  history  of  the  Angora  is 
unknown.  It  has  doubtless  been  the  companion  of 
man  for  countless  ages,  and  civilizations  have  existed 
upon  the  world  far  longer  than  we  have  been 
taught.  This  region  of  Angora  was  in  the  ancient 


THE  ANGORA  AND  MILKING  GOATS  351 

days  famed  for  the  wonderful  fabrics  woven  there, 
and  the  Angora  goat  furnished  the  fleece  for  these 
fabrics.  Occasionally  war  or  famine  decimated  the 
flocks,  and  at  last  the  changes  in  industrial  life 
hushed  the  looms  of  Angora  and  the  industry  of 
spinning  the  fabrics  was  transferred  to  England. 
Thereafter  mohair  became  a  regular  export  from 
Angora,  and  the  quality  of  the  product  suffered  at 
once.  What  was  good  enough  to  use  at  home  be- 
came too  good  to  sell  abroad  and  the  Angoras  were 
crossed  with  a  baser  goat  called  the  Kurd.  It  is 
thought  that  there  is  not  now  in  the  world  a  speci- 
men of  the  true,  ancient  Angora.  The  loss  has  been 
in  the  fineness  of  the  hair  and  the  presence  of  more 
kemp,  which  is  an  under  hair  shorter  and  damaging 
to  true  mohair,  because  it  will  not  take  dye.  It 
would  seem  from  the  studies  of  Mendel's  law  that 
it  is  most  unlikely  that  the  true  and  honorable 
blood  of  the  old  Angora  is  lost,  for  it  is  sure  to  re- 
appear in  its  purity  sooner  or  later,  if  it  has  not 
already,  and  can  be  fixed  again,  if  it  has  not  already 
been  fixed,  by  proper  matings. 

In  our  beginning  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  gave  a  few 
Angoras  to  Dr.  Jas.  B.  Davis  of  South  Carolina. 
Dr.  Davis  called  them  "  Cashmeres, "  and  for  some 
years  they  were  called  by  that  name  in  America, 
though  the  Cashmere  goat  is  quite  distinct  and  of 
no  great  value  in  its  present  form  and  has  never 
been  bred  pure  in  the  United  States,  so  far  as  the 
author  knows.  These  goats  throve  fairly  well,  and 
following  the  custom  of  the  times  very  great  lauda- 


352  SHEEP  FARMING  IN  AMERICA 

tion  was  made  of  their  virtues,  among  other  things 
that  they  sheared  from  four  to  eight  pounds,  which 
sold  for  from  $6.00  to  $8.00  per  pound  in  Scotland. 
This,  unfortunately,  was  an  exaggeration  of  about 
$7.25  per  pound,  but  the  goats  meekly  bore  the  ob- 
loquy as  in  the  Israelitish  days  of  old,  meantime 
going  merrily  about  their  true  mission,  to  subdue 
and  replenish  the  earth! 

When  Dr.  Davis  had  finished  with  his  goats  they 
were  sold,  and  among  the  purchasers  was  Col.  Rich- 
ard Peters  of  Georgia.  This  man  proved  to  be  an 
Angora  enthusiast  and  in  turn  sent  specimens  to 
Texas,  California  and  other  places. 

It  is  significant  that  the  Angora  never  became 
prominent  anywhere  except  in  Texas,  California  and 
Oregon  until  within  comparatively  recent  years. 
There  were  several  reasons  for  that.  The  warm, 
dry  climates  of  the  two  states  were  peculiarly  suited 
to  the  animals  and  land  was  cheap  there  and  range 
limitless.  Then  there  were  found  in  Texas  herds 
of  common  Mexican  goats  on  which  the  Angoras 
could  be  crossed.  This  crossing  was  done  on  an 
extensive  scale  and  in  a  short  time  there  sprung 
into  existence  great  flocks  of  grade  Angora  goats, 
larger  and  stronger  than  the  pure-bred  animals, 
but  possessing  a  small  amount  of  inferior  hair. 
Further  crossing  greatly  improved  the  hair,  how- 
ever, and  it  is  not  meant  to  suggest  that  this  debas- 
ing blood  has  brought  ruin  or  irretrievable  loss.  In 
truth,  the  added  size  and  strength  of  the  grades 
have  been  a  help,  and  by  the  careful  selection  of 


THE  ANGORA  AND   MILKING   GOATS  353 

bucks  for  a  few  generations  wonders  are  worked  in 
Angora  grade  fleeces. 

This  brings  us  (without  mention  of  further  in- 
teresting importations)  down  to  the  date  of  the  re- 
cent exploitation  of  the  Angora.  Proved  in  1897 
to  be  unrivalled  brush  exterminators  in  Iowa,  their 
fame  spread,  and  Angoras  have  been  sent  in  carload 
lots  to  most  of  the  states  and  territories.  When  they 
have  been  good  goats  and  given  good  care  they  have 
proved  profitable.  When  they  have  been  common 
goats,  the  result  of  indifferent  grade  sires  on  com- 
mon smooth  Mexican  goats,  they  have  still  proved 
excellent  brush  exterminators,  but  have  struck  their 
owners  with  dismay  when  they  had  them  sheared 
and  tried  to  sell  the  fleeces. 

Within  very  recent  years,  however,  since  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  record  and  flock  book  for  the  An- 
goras ;  with  classes  at  fairs  and  new  importations 
from  Asia  and  Africa,  there  is  a  very  great  im- 
provement coming  over  the  Angora  industry  and 
it  may  be  that  some  day  good  mohair  will  be  abun- 
dant on  the  American  market.  When  that  time 
comes,  curiously  enough,  it  will  be  in  greater  de- 
mand than  it  is,  now  that  it  is  rather  scarce.  Mo- 
hair is  used  in  making  plush  for  dress  fabrics  and 
yarns.  It  is  the  most  durable  of  all  fabrics,  prac- 
tically indestructible  by  wear.  Most  of  the  uphol- 
stery of  railway  cars  in  the  United  States  is  said  to 
be  made  from  mohair. 

What  then  could  a  breeder  hope  to  reach  in  An- 
gora goat  breeding!  By  the  use  of  right  sires,  for 


354  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

a  series  of  years,  by  discarding  from  the  flock  stead- 
ily the  worst  he  ought  in  time  to  possess  a  flock 
shearing  from  4  to  6  pounds  of  mohair,  worth  about 
45  cents  per  pound  at  the  present  writing.  That 
will  pay  well.  A  fleece  of  2  to  3  pounds  worth  20 
cents  per  pound  is  discouraging. 

It  takes  time,  however,  to  breed  out  the  common 
goat  from  the  Angoras.  To  buy  any  large  number 
of  practically  pure-bred  goats  is  impossible  in  Amer- 
ica. The  breeder  must  have  patience,  persistence 
and  the  habit  of  extermination. 

Now  what  of  management!  Newly  arrived  goats 
from  the  Southwest  are  tender  and  when  turned  on 
cold  eastern  pastures  may  suffer  considerably  for  a 
time.  They  need  a  dry  shed,  open  to  the  south.  To 
this  they  will  come  whenever  it  threatens  rain.  They 
may  be  fed  there  some  dry  forage,  clover  hay  or 
whatever  is  available.  It  is  not  usual  to  feed  them 
grain,  and  much  grain  will  cause  the  kids  to  be  born 
with  small  vitality.  The  fence  restraining  them  may 
be  of  woven  wire  and  thus  they  are  easily  held  in 
bounds.  They  must  not  be  confined  to  too  small  a 
pasture  else  they  will  famish.  Better  let  them  take 
their  time  to  the  brush  extermination  and  make  a 
profit  from  them  as  you  go  along.  They  will  feed 
upon  the  leaves  of  almost  every  species  of  tree  and 
brush,  if  they  can  reach  them.  They  will  not  do 
much  in  the  way  of  girdling  trees,  though  they  will 
eat  the  bark  from  some  varieties  of  trees.  They 
do  not  much  relish  hickory.  Green  briars  are  dan- 
gerous because  they  sometimes  catch  and  hold  fast 


THE  ANGORA  AND  MILKING  GOATS  355 

the  little  goats  till  they  perish.  These  should  be 
mown  off  with  a  brush  scythe  and  then  the  goats 
will  keep  them  down.  They  do  not  make  a  meal  of 
any  one  article  of  diet  but  nibble  a  few  leaves  from 
one  shrub,  a  few  from  another,  then  some  weeds, 
some  grass,  more  leaves  and  so  on  the  day  long. 
They  will  not  thrive  on  brush  alone.  They  will  live 
well  on  grass  alone,  but  thrive  better  to  have  brush 
to  mix  with  it.  They  require  water.  Laurel  will 
poison  them  if  they  are  given  access  to  it  when  very 
hungry. 

Angoras  make  good  eating.  Their  flesh  is  called 
"venison"  or  "mutton,"  according  to  the  state  of 
their  respective  markets.  The  Angora  does  not  have 
the  overpowering  odor  of  the  common  male  goat. 
They  are  as  dainty  as  deer  in  their  habits.  Offered 
for  sale  at  our  great  market  centers  they  sell  for 
considerably  less  than  sheep,  1  to  2  cents  per  pound 
less. 

This  condition  may  improve  with  time  and  the 
elimination  of  more  of  the  common  goat  from  their 
blood. 

Angora  goats  are  not  heavy  milkers  and  are  not 
suitable  for  use  as  milking  goats.  Great  excellence 
is  seldom  attained  in  two  or  three  diverse  lines  of 
endeavor. 

The  beginner  in  goat  raising  in  the  East  should 
fix  in  his  mind  a  few  facts.  Angoras  are  not  excep- 
tions to  the  universal  rule  in  the  animal  world  that 
food  is  required  for  sustenance  and  growth.  They 
are  able,  true,  to  eat  foods  that  other  animals  neg- 


356  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

lect,  but  as  a  rule  brushwood  is  not  very  nutritious 
and  there  ought  to  be  some  grass  in  connection.  In 
winter  time  Angoras  deprived  of  food  suffer  as 
sheep  would.  They  cannot  subsist  on  coarse 
browse.  They  need  bright  straw,  corn  fodder,  a 
very  little  grain.  Then  let  them  browse  what  they 
will.  They  absolutely  must  have  abundant  exercise 
to  keep  them  in  health.  They  love  to  take  it  by 
roaming  about  and  browsing. 

They  must  not  be  crowded.  The  shed  should  be 
roomy  and  airy  and  dry  under  foot.  It  is  absolute- 
ly essential  that  they  should  have  an  abundance  of 
fresh  air.  They  are  very  dainty  about  what  they 
eat  and  will  not  eat  any  forage  that  has  been 
dropped  underfoot.  Their  racks,  therefore,  should 
be  so  made  as  to  hold  the  forage  up.  It  is  useless  to 
lift  hay  or  fodder  from  the  floor  or  ground  and  put 
it  again  into  the  rack;  they  refuse  it.  They  have 
the  sensitive  noses  of  rabbits. 

Do  not  forget  the  dryness  underfoot.  The  yard 
must  not  be  muddy,  and  if  it  becomes  so,  slightly 
raised  walks  of  plank  or  rock  should  lead  from  the 
dry  shed  to  the  dry  pasture  outside.  There  should 
be  abundant  opportunity  of  entrance  to  the  shed. 
It  is  best  to  leave  the  entire  south  side  open,  else 
some  quarrelsome  individuals  will  prevent  the  oth- 
ers from  gaining  ingress. 

The  period  of  gestation  in  the  Angora  is  about 
150  days.  A  buck  will  serve  from  40  to  50  does. 

The  buck  should  be  managed  as  has  been  advised 
for  sheep,  though  some  breeders  practice  turning 


THE  ANGORA  AND   MILKING  GOATS  357 

in  about  5  bucks  to  the  hundred  does  and  leaving 
them,  with  the  result  that  nearly  all  the  kids  come  at 
one  time.  This  may  be  a  good  practice  if  the  breed- 
er can  manage  them  in  that  way. 

The  kids  must  not  come  before  warm  weather. 
After  the  leaves  start  in  the  spring  is  the  proper 
time.  The  does  should  be  sufficiently  well  nour- 
ished to  be  strong  at  kidding  time,  though  one  must 
not  overdo  this  kindness,  else  the  kids  will  come 
weak.  Abundant  exercise  for  the  doe  with  sufficient 
food  will  make  a  successful  kidding. 

Angoras  must  have  care  and  attention  at  kidding 
time,  much  more  than  ewes  require.  The  little  kids 
are  delicate  and  cannot  endure  cold  or  wet.  They 
are  not  hardy  and  must  not  follow  their  mothers 
out  to  graze  before  they  are  six  or  eight  weeks  old. 
Should  they  attempt  to  follow  they  will  become 
weary  and  lie  down  to  rest  and  become  lost.  There- 
fore, they  are  kept  in  the  corral  and  a  board  put 
up  over  which  the  mother  must  jump.  When  the  kid 
can  also  jump  out  it  may  follow  her. 

A  better  scheme  is  the  "  bridge. "  This  is  an  in- 
cline ending  abruptly  in  the  air,  the  high  end  at 
the  corral  side.  The  does  jump  up  on  this  to  go  out 
and  the  weaklings  run  under  where  they  cannot  get 
through.  Thus  they  are  removed  from  danger  of 
being  stepped  upon  by  their  mothers  or  other  does. 

When  the  kid  is  born  it  should  be  placed  with  its 
mother  in  a  small  pen.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  handle  it  unnecessarily  nor  to  rub  it  against  the 
other  kids,  else  the  mother  may  become  confused 


358  SHEEP   FARMING    IN    AMERICA 

by  the  odor,  and  she  depends  upon  that  entirely  for 
her  knowledge  of  her  offspring.  If  it  is  inconven- 
ient to  have  a  pen  for  each  doe,  several  may  be  con- 
fined to  the  one  pen,  placing  their  kids  apart  as  far 
as  possible.  The  kids  are  often  "staked,"  that  is, 
tied  by  one  leg  with  a  strong  cord  in  which  is  a 
swivel.  The  doe  will  always  return  to  where  she 
left  the  kid  to  seek  for  it.  It  is  said  that  twice  a 
day  is  often  enough  for  the  kids  to  suck.  Should 
the  doe  disown  her  offspring  she  will  own  it  again 
if  confined  with  it  and  the  kid  assisted  to  suck  for  a 
few  days. 

Kids  must  not  be  exposed  to  cold  or  wet.  Expe- 
rience shows  that  they  are  more  delicate  than  lambs. 
Is  not  this  a  striking  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
breed?  For  how  many  unnumbered  centuries  has 
it  been  under  the  fostering  care  of  man !  The  com- 
mon goat  is  the  hardiest  of  domestic  animals,  and 
the  most  difficult  to  get  profit  from.  The  Angora, 
with  its  delicately  beautiful  fleece,  has  had  this  rug- 
gedness  sacrificed  to  the  beauty  and  usefulness  of 
its  covering.  As  a  rule  the  better  bred  the  Angoras 
are,  the  nearer  pure-bred,  the  more  delicate  they  are. 
And  yet,  given  right  management,  they  are  hardy 
enough.  They  endure  tropic  heats  and  semi- Arctic 
colds,  but  they  must  be  dry,  they  must  have  air  and 
exercise  and  food  partly  of  browse  and  partly  of 
grass. 

We  will  not  here  go  into  the  range  management 
of  Angoras.  Anyone  wishing  to  grow  them  in  large 
numbers  should  make  careful  study  in  detail.  He 


THE  ANGORA  AND  MILKING  GOATS  359 

will  find  much  information  in  the  volumes  previous- 
ly mentioned  in  this  chapter.  Dry,  hilly  ranges  are 
admirably  adapted  to  Angora  goat  growing.  They 
seem  rather  more  expensive  to  manage  than  range 
sheep,  especially  at  kidding  time.  It  is  not  well  to 
put  more  than  1,000  in  a  flock.  An  increase  of  75 
per  cent  is  considered  good.  In  small  lots  increases 
of  100  per  cent  are  not  unusual.  The  better  bred 
Angoras  are,  the  fewer  the  pairs  of  twins  born. 

Angoras  suffer  sometimes  from  stomach  wormSx 
from  foot-rot  and  lice,  from  two  sorts  of  scab  (they 
are  exempt  from  sheep  scab),  and  probably  from 
nodular  disease.  They  have  a  disease  of  their  own 
called  "takosis,"  which  makes  them  waste  away, 
giving  them  a  tired  feeling,  accompanied  by  diar- 
rhea and  cough.  It  was  once  believed  that  Angoras 
had  no  diseases ;  indeed  like  sheep  in  dry  hilly  re- 
gions they  are  practically  exempt  from  disease,  but 
when  brought  to  damp  countries  with  dense  green 
grass  their  environment  is  so  changed  that  they 
become  infected  in  the  same  manner  as  sheep.  The 
treatment  for  internal  parasites  is  the  same  as  for 
sheep.  Good  management  in  suitable  locations  will 
prevent  disease  in  Angoras. 

Where  should  Angoras  be  introduced?  Not  to 
arable  farms.  Sheep  pay  better  there.  But  to  hilly 
and  brushy  regions  where  it  is  not  desired  to  en- 
courage the  growth  of  new  timber,  or  where  it  is 
desired  to  clear  away  a  part  of  the  brush  and  re- 
place it  with  grass.  In  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  Kentucky  and  southern  Ohio,  in  Ten- 


360  SHEEP  FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

nessee  and  the  hill  regions  south  of  there  Angoras 
might  exist  by  thousands  with  profit  and  advantage. 

They  should  in  all  locations  have  provision  made 
for  feeding  in  winter,  some  dry  corn  fodder,  oats 
and  hay. 

The  difficulty  in  introducing  Angoras  to  the  re- 
gion best  for  them  is  the  character  of  many  of  the 
people  living  there.  The  careful  reader  will  have 
realized  ere  this  that  Angora  goat  breeding  is  not 
adapted  to  a  careless,  lazy  or  indifferent  man's  hab- 
its. More  than  most  animals,  Angoras  are  depend- 
ent upon  man  for  aid  in  infancy  and  help  at  inter- 
vals during  life.  Angoras  are  destroyed  sometimes 
by  dogs,  though  it  is  thought  that  with  a  number  of 
wethers  among  them  they  are  less  subject  to  attack 
than  sheep.  The  man  who  wishes  to  breed  goats 
without  care  or  attention  from  him  had  better  take 
the  common  "Billie  goat,"  which  is  as  energetic  a 
brush  destroyer  as  he  needs,  and  does  not  have  to 
be  shorn  or  need  attention  at  kidding  time,  and  can 
usually  defend  himself  from  dogs. 

THE    MILKING    GOAT. 

Doubtless  goats  have  been  the  companions  of  man 
for  a  longer  time  than  cows  and  have  befriended 
him  for  most  of  this  time  by  sharing  their  milk 
with  him.  Therefore  the  milking  habit  has  been 
well  fixed  in  certain  types  of  goats. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  goats  make  better  use  of 
their  food  than  cows,  and  turn  more  of  it  into  milk. 
Therefore  from  the  standpoint  of  economy  goats 


THE  ANGORA  AND  MILKING  GOATS  361 

make  milk  better  and  cheaper  than  cows.  Further- 
more, goats  are  almost  never  attacked  with  tuber- 
culosis and  their  milk  is  said  to  have  tonic  properties 
of  especial  value  to  children.  Then  there  is  the  fact 
that  a  goat  is  very  much  smaller  than  a  cow,  is 
easily  sheltered,  is  tractable,  requires  but  one-eighth 
as  much  food,  and  is  in  many  ways  better  adapted 
to  village  or  suburban  life. 

Taking  these  facts  into  consideration,  it  is  sur- 
prising that  we  have  not  had  a  larger  development 
of  the  milch  goat  in  America.  There  are  two  prin- 
cipal reasons :  the  incapacity  of  the  average  Ameri- 
can for  independence  and  self-help,  and  his  false 
pride  that  makes  him  fear  ridicule  if  he  adopts  a 
practice  that  is  followed  by  his  poorer  neighbors. 
Near  many  cities  there  are  colonies  of  European 
emigrants  who  make  more  or  less  use  of  the  goat 
as  a  milk-giving  animal.  Many  a  well-to-do  subur- 
banite could  follow  this  example  with  profit  and 
gain  great  comfort  from  the  assurance  of  a  supply 
of  pure  milk,  produced  under  his  own  eye. 

The  writer  has  often  seen  cottagers  in  the  old 
world  employ  goats  for  this  purpose  of  milkgiving. 
Very  often  they  would  be  tethered  near  the  dwelling 
and  children  would  bring  them  forage,  clippings 
from  the  lawn,  refuse  from  the  table  and  surplus 
vegetables  from  the  garden.  Children  would  often 
do  the  milking  also,  and  the  friendship  between  the 
gentle  goat  and  the  appreciative  children  was  very 
real. 

The  amount  of  milk  given  by  a  well-bred  goat  is 


362  SHEEP   FARMING   IN   AMERICA 

extraordinary.  From  three  to  five  quarts  a  day 
are  not  uncommon  in  Europe  and  the  period  of  lac- 
tation is  long.  Some  German  authorities  assert  that 
the  goat  often  yields  ten  times  the  weight  of  its  body 
annually,  and  that  exceptional  animals  yield  in  milk 
as  much  as  eighteen  times  their  weight. 

It  is  a  good  goat  of  any  breed  that' will  yield  two 
quarts  per  day  for  seven  or  eight  months  in  the 
year. 

The  flavor  of  goats'  milk  is  good,  if  the  goats 
have  good  food.  If  they  must  subsist  upon  bitter 
and  aromatic  brush,  or  upon  onions  and  refuse  from 
the  garden,  there  is  danger  of  the  flavors  reacting 
on  the  milk.  Milch  goats  when  in  use  should  be  as 
carefully  fed  as  dairy  cows,  given  good  wholesome 
sweet  hay  or  clovers,  alfalfa,  or  dried  lawn  clip- 
pings. They  should  have  their  ration  of  bran  and 
oats,  with  a  trifle  of  oilmeal  if  the  best  is  sought. 
At  times  when  they  are  not  in  milk  they  may  be 
permitted  to  feast  upon  all  sorts  of  brush  and  weeds 
that  taste  more  palatable  to  them  than  to  us. 

As  to  the  amount  of  feed  required  it  is  said  that 
eight  goats  require  about  the  same  amount  of  food 
as  one  cow. 

Milch  goats  need  a  comfortable,  clean,  dry  house, 
well  ventilated,  for  their  winter's  home.  They  need 
a  good  fence  since  they  will  climb  and  creep  out 
whenever  they  have  opportunity.  They  are  quite 
often  tied  in  stalls  as  cows  are  tied,  though  it  would 
seem  better  to  give  them  clean,  roomy  pens.  They 
should  be  milked  regularly  three  times  a  day  by 


THE  ANGORA  AND  MILKING  GOATS  363 

the  same  person.  They  should  be  taken  to  a  clean, 
odorless  place  to  be  milked.  Previous  to  milking  the 
udder  and  teats  should  be  wiped  quite  clean.  No  tu- 
berculous person  should  milk  either  goats  or  cows. 

Milch  goats  are  very  prolific,  having  many  pairs 
of  twins  and  triplets.  A  Nubian  goat,  one  of  the 
best  milking  kinds,  is  said  to  have  dropped  11  kids 
in  one  year.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  155 
days. 

Just  how  to  manage  the  kids  when  their  mother's 
milk  is  needed  for  human  consumption  the  writer 
does  not  see.  Probably  to  wean  them  after  the  age 
of  ten  days,  feeding  them  with  the  bottle  a  portion 
of  their  mother's  milk  and  by  substituting  other 
foods,  as  bran  with  a  little  oilmeal  in  it,  oats  and 
good  hay,  or  grass  in  summer  would  solve  that 
problem. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  interest  in  milch 
goats  in  America  is  mostly  speculative  at  present, 
since  there  are  so  few  here  and  the  source  of  sup- 
ply being  Germany,  Switzerland,  France,  and  per- 
haps Malta  or  Italy,  where  because  animal  diseases 
prevail  our  customs  regulations  forbid  the  impor- 
tation of  goats  or  other  cud-chewing  animals.  There 
is  hope  that  some  way  may  be  opened  to  the  impor- 
tation of  these  animals  and  that  an  industry  may 
spring  up  here.  The, best  adapted  to  our  climate 
would  seem  to  be  the  goats  of  Switzerland  and  Ger- 
many, the  Toggenburger  and  Saanen  breeds  being 
especially  desirable. 

The  Nubian  goat  is  the  greatest  milker  of  them 


364  SHEEP   FARMING   IN    AMERICA 

all,  as  well  as  the  largest  in  size,  but  is  not  hardy 
in  the  colder  parts  of  our  country.  Crosses  of  the 
Nubian  on  other  goats  are  hardier  and  good  milk- 
ers. It  is  remarkable  that  Africa  should  have  given 
us  this  animal,  the  sole  representative  of  its  breed- 
ing that  has  come  to  us  if  we  except  the  fat-tailed 
sheep  of  Tunis. 

Doubtless  these  Nubian  goats  gave  milk  in  the 
days  of  Joseph  and  Pharaoh. 


SHEPHERD'S  GESTATION  TABLE. 


Date  of 
Service. 
May  1  ... 
2  

Due  to 
Lamb. 
Sept.  25 
26 

Date  of 

Service. 

July  1.. 

2 

Due  to 
Lamb. 
..Nov.  25 
26 

Date  of 

Service. 

Sept.  1... 

2 

Due  to 
Lamb. 
..Jan.  26 

27 

Dale  of 
Service. 
Nov.  1  .  . 
2 

Due  to 
Lamb. 
.March  28 
29 

3 

27 

3 

27 

3 

28 

3 

30 

4  

28 

4 

28 

4 

29 

4 

31 

5 

29 

5 

29 

5 

30 

5 

April  1 

6  

...30 

6 

30 

6  . 

31 

6 

2 

7  

.Oct.  1 

7 

Dec.  1 

7 

Feb.  1 

7 

3 

8 

2 

8 

2 

8 

2 

8 

4 

9  

3 

9 

3 

9 

3 

9 

5 

10  

..  4 

10  

4 

10  

4 

10 

6 

11  

5 

11 

5 

11 

5 

11 

7 

12  . 

6 

12 

6 

12 

6 

12 

g 

13  

7 

13 

7 

13  

7 

13 

g 

14  

.  ..    8 

14 

8 

14 

8 

14 

10 

15  

..  9 

15 

9 

15  

9 

15 

11 

16  

...10 

16 

10 

16 

10 

16 

12 

17  

...11 

17  

11 

17... 

.11 

17 

13 

18  

12 

18 

12 

18  . 

12 

18 

14 

19 

13 

19 

13 

19 

13 

19 

15 

20  

14 

20 

14 

20 

14 

20 

16 

21... 

15 

21 

15 

21 

15 

21 

17 

22  

16 

22 

16 

22... 

16 

22 

18 

23  

17 

23 

17 

23 

17 

23 

19 

24  

...18 

24 

18 

24... 

18 

24 

20 

25  
26 

19 
20 

25  
26 

...19 

20 

25  
26 

...19 
20 

25  
26 

21 
22 

27  

21 

27 

21 

27 

21 

27 

23 

28  . 

22 

28 

22 

28 

22 

28 

24 

29  

...23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

25 

30... 

24 

30 

24 

30 

30 

26 

31... 

...25 

31 

25 

Oct.  1. 

25 

DecVY.:' 

27 

June  1  .  . 

26 

Aug.  1 

26 

2 

26 

2 

28 

2  

...27 

2 

27 

3 

27 

3 

29 

3  

28 

3 

28 

4 

28 

4 

30 

4 

29 

4 

29 

5 

March  1 

5 

May  1 

5  

.  30 

5 

30 

6 

2 

6 

2 

6... 

31 

6 

31 

7 

3 

7 

3 

7  

..Nov.  1 

7 

Jan.  1 

8 

4 

8 

4 

8  

2 

8 

2 

9 

5 

9 

5 

9  

..  3 

9  . 

.  3 

10  

6 

10  

..  6 

10  

4 

10 

4 

11 

7 

11 

7 

11 

5 

11 

5 

12 

8 

12 

8 

12  

6 

12 

6 

13 

9 

13  .. 

.  9 

13  

7 

13 

7 

14 

10 

14 

10 

14... 

..  8 

14  . 

8 

15  . 

.11 

15  

11 

15  

9 

15 

9 

16 

12 

16 

12 

16 

10 

16 

10 

17 

13 

17 

13 

17  

.  11 

17 

11 

18 

14 

18 

.  14 

18..  . 

12 

18 

12 

19 

15 

19 

15 

19... 

13 

19 

13 

20 

16 

20... 

16 

20.... 

14 

20 

14 

21 

17 

21 

17 

21... 

...15 

21... 

15 

22  .. 

...18 

22... 

...18 

22.... 

.  16 

22 

16 

23 

19 

23 

..  19 

23 

17 

23 

17 

24 

20 

24 

20 

24.... 

18 

24 

18 

25 

21 

25... 

...21 

25 

19 

25 

19 

22 

26 

.22 

26  

..  20 

26  . 

20 

27  . 

....23 

27... 

...23 

27 

21 

27 

21 

28 

24 

28  

24 

28 

22 

28 

22 

29 

25 

29 

25 

29 

23 

29 

23 

30 

26 

30... 

...26 

30 

24 

30 

24 

31 

27 

31.  .. 

27 

31  

25 

INDEX. 


Age,    advanced    of    Merinos,    41. 
Alfalfa    and   oats,    180. 
Alfalfa    hay    for    ewes,    120. 
Angora   goats,   347. 
Argentina,   Lincoln   blood   in,    58. 

Bakewell,    Robt.,   56. 

Barn   for  lambs,   279. 

Barns,    ventilation    of,  123. 

Beet   pulp,   295. 

Binder   twine   injures   wool,    204. 

Black-faces,     66. 

Blacktops,  33. 

Bleeding    from   docking,    160. 

Bloat,    remedies    for,    184. 

Bloating,    182. 

Bluegrass   for   ewes,    120. 

Bluestone    for    stomach    worms,    340. 

Bone,    developing,    142. 

Bonemeal    for    feeding,     141. 

Bran   for  ewes  after  lambing,   132. 

Bran,    wheat,    for  ewes,    120. 

Breeding,    cross,   76. 

Breeding   season   on    the   range,   232. 

Breeds   and   parasites,    22. 

Breeds,    the    mutton    compared,    54. 

Brine    sprinkled   on   hay,    156. 

Brome    grass,    176,    182. 

Burnett,    Prof.    E.    A.,    quoted,    273. 

Cabbages,    189. 

California,    number  of  sheep   in,    15. 

Canadian    peas    for    lamb    feeding,    262. 

Castrating  old   rams,    160. 

Castration    of    lambs,    161. 

Cattle    and    sheep,    244. 

Cheviots,    64. 

Chicago,    buying   ewes    in,    255. 

Clover   and  alfalfa   pasture,   181. 

Clover  for  ewes,   120. 

Coaltar  dip,   106. 

Coffey,   Prof.    W.    C.,   on   silage,    134. 

Colorado,    alfalfa-fed   lambs  in,   268. 

number  of   sheep    in,    15. 

pea-feeding  in,   261. 
Commission   men   aid   in   securing   feed- 
ers,   259. 
Corn — 

amount  of  for  100  lambs,   289. 

cracked,    146. 

feeding    on    grass,    154. 

for  lamb   fattening,   287. 

shelling  by   lambs,   148. 

shock    for   sheep,    306. 
Cornbelt,    sheep-farms    in,    176. 
Cornbelt,    sheep   feeding    in    the,    276. 
Corrals   and    coyotes,    230. 
Cost   of   lamb   mutton,    286. 
Cotswolds,    57. 
Cowpeas,   147. 
Coyotes,   230,   233. 
Crating   dressed    lamb,    150. 
Creeps,   139,    143,   162. 
Creosote    for    stomach    worms,    339. 
Crook,    the    shepherd's,    124. 


Cross-breeding,    23,    76,   84. 
Davis,    Dr.    J.    B.,    351. 
Delacour's,    M.,    flock,    79. 
Dip,    heating    for    use,    106. 
Dip,    kinds    of,    108. 
Dipping — 

at    markets,    247. 

importance   of,    102. 

necessity   for,    246. 

regular   urged,   110. 

summary    of,    110. 

vat,   the,  105. 
Diseases,     311. 
Disease   due  to  overuse   of   soil   or  cor 

ners,    158. 

Dishley   Merinos,   79. 
Disinfectant   in   docking,    160. 
Docking,    159. 

Doors    for    sheep    barns,    123,    278. 
Dorsets,    60. 

Dorset    blood    for    crossing,    85. 
Dorsetshire,    shepherds   in,    13. 
Downs,    the,    in    England.    44. 
Dressing    lambs    for    market,    148. 

Ear   tags    for   marking,    209. 
Ewe,   countenance  of,    123. 
Ewe,    delivery    by    the,    125. 


(366) 


age    of    for   discarding,    256. 
assort   for    mating,    113. 
clip   wool   from   udders   of,    124. 
dipping    pregnant,     110. 
fall    treatment  of,    112. 
feeding   after  lambing,    131. 
feeding    pregnant,    120. 
old    for   feeding,    254. 
pregnant,  care  of,   117. 
rams   running  with,    199. 
selecting,    99. 

separating    lambs    from,    148. 
shearing   early,   121. 
short-legged,    101. 
sore  teats   of,    138. 
when    to    breed,    114. 
young    disown    lambs,    129. 
Exercising    sheep,    187. 

Fattening  lambs   on    grass,    154. 
Feed    for   a   breeding    flock,    22. 
Feed     for    milk     production,     132. 
Feed-racks,     122,     281. 
Feeders,    selection   of,    248. 
Feeding — 

ewes,    22. 

for   market,    142. 

mill    screenings,    275. 

peas   in   Colorado,   261. 

sheep   in   the   cornbelt,    277. 

western    lambs,    244. 
Feet,    care   of   the,    191. 
Fine-wool   breeds,    the,   27. 
Fleece,    water   in    a,    121. 
Fleeces,    some    heavy,    30. 


INDEX. 


367 


Flies,   pine   tar  repels,    186. 

Flock- 
getting    home    with    the,    101. 
management   of   the,    171. 
shift    the,    168. 
size   of   the,   26. 

Flocks,    effect   of  on   agriculture,    17. 

Forage,    green   for   sheep,    155. 

Foot-rot,    192. 

Foot-scald,    192. 

France,    flocks   in,    13,   79. 

Gains   on    grass,    154. 

Garget,    319. 

Gasoline    for    stomach    worms,    341. 

Goat,    the   milch,    360. 

Goats,    Angora,    347. 

Grain    for   pregnant   ewes,    120. 

Grass,    feeding    corn    on,    154. 

Grass,    growing    lambs    on,    158. 

Grass,    infected,    158. 

Grass,   waiting    for   in    West,   224. 

Grub    in    head,    323.  | 

Hampshires,    51. 

Hay,    brine    sprinkled    over,    156. 

Hays    for   feeding,    282. 

Health    and    pink    skin,    100. 

Herder,    the   maligned,   238. 

Herders   in    the    West,    223. 

Hilly    lands,    Dorsets    for,    63. 

Hurdles   used    in    England,    139. 

Hurdling    against    flock    evils,    158. 

Idaho,    number   of    sheep   in,   15. 
Illinois,    number   of   sheep    in,    15. 
Inbreeding,    96. 

Iowa,   number   of   sheep   in.    15. 
India  ink   for  tattooing,   211. 
Indiana,   number   of   sheep   in,    15. 

Jones,    C.    C.,    quoted,    340. 

Kentucky,   number  of   sheep   in,   15. 
Kids,    care    of,    358. 

Lambing   tent,   the,    196. 
Lambing   time,    care   at,    125. 
Lambs — 

buying  to  feed,   252. 

buying   on    the    range,    259. 

castration   of,    161. 

causes    of    death    in,    296. 

chilled,  128. 

Colorado    alfalfa-fed,    268. 

cost   of   growing,    140. 

cow's  milk   for,   128. 

cross-breeding    for,    80. 

dressing    for    market,    148. 

dressed   fat   winter,    150. 

docking.   159. 

ewe,    122. 

fall,    198. 

feeding    for    market,    139,    142. 

foretelling    advent   of,    125. 

growing   on    grass   alono,    158. 

helping    to   first   meal,    126. 

high-quality,    41. 

keeping    in   health,    168. 

making    ewes   own    their,    130. 

marketing    spring,    158. 

Mexican   type   of,   253. 

not   owned  by   ewes,    129. 

oilmeal   for,   141. 

prices    for    dressed,    148. 


La  mbs — • 

pure    water   for,    147. 

range,    not   recognized    by   ewes,    236. 

rations    for,    140. 

shade    for,    155. 

sore  eyes   among,  137. 

sore-mouthed,    138. 

treatment   of   late-born,    151. 

trimming    range,   234. 

weaning,    148,    161. 

when   six    weeks    old,    148. 

when  to  dock,  159. 
Leases  of  range,  227. 
Leicesters,  56. 

Lime    and    sulphur    dip,    108. 
Lincolns,    58. 
Long-wools,    the,   56. 
Lungworms   in   grass,    158. 

Manure,    waste  of,    156. 

Market,   feeding  for,   142. 

Marking,    methods    of,    209-212. 

Mating,    113. 

Merino  blood,   value  of,  23,   28,   31. 

Merinos — 

American,    31. 

Delaine,   33. 

Dishley,    79. 

flocks  of,    24. 

handling,    40. 
Mexican — 

lambs   as   feeders,    222. 

native   sheep,   215. 

methods    of    management,    216. 

sheep,    character   of,    216. 
Michigan,   lamb   feeding   in,    300. 
Michigan,    number   of    sheep   in,    15. 
Middlings,    wheat,    146. 
Miller,    H.    P.,    quoted,    149. 
Milk,    cow's,    for  lambs,    128. 
Milk-flow,  feed  for,  132. 
Milk-flow  of   ewes,    119. 
Missouri,    number   of   sheep   in,    15. 
Montana,    number    of    sheep    in,    15. 
Mountain    breeds,    the,    64. 
Mountain  ranges,   sheep  on,   225. 
Mutton- 
amount  of  made  on   peas,   266. 

breeds,    the,   43. 

cost   of   making   lamb.    286. 

making   in   May   and   June,    152. 

prejudice    against,    16. 

Nevada,  number  of  sheep  in,    15. 

New    Mexico,    flock    husbandry    in,    218. 

New   Mexico,   old  days   in,    218. 

New   Mexico,    number   of  sheep    in,    15. 

New   York,    number   of   sheep    in,    15. 

New  Zealand,   quality  of  flocks  in,   24.'}. 

Nodular  disease,   177,   324. 

North  Dakota,   number  of  sheep  in,   15. 

Nubian  goats,   363. 

Oats   and   alfalfa,    180. 

Oats,    feeding,    146. 

Ohio,  number  of  sheep  in.   15. 

Ohio,    Rambouillets    in,    38. 

Oilmeal   for   lambs,    141. 

Orchard    grass,   181. 

Oregon,    number    of    sheep    in,    15. 

Oxfords,    53. 

Packers   and    price   of   mutton,   17. 
Panels,  using,  124. 


368 


INDEX. 


Parasitic  infection  of  ranges,  228. 
Parasites,   internal,   164. 
Parasites    and    breeds,    22. 
Pasturing    alfalfa,    186. 
Pastures    and    stomach    worms,   174. 
Pastures,    change,    168. 
Pastures,  use  of  sown,  178. 
Pasture,  fencing  off  for  ewes,    154. 
Pea  feeding  in  Colorado,  261. 
Peas — 

field,    147. 

for  lambs,  299. 

lamb  mutton  made  on,   266. 
Pennsylvania,    number  of  sheep  in,   15. 
Persian   sheep,    69. 
Peters,   Col.   Richard,  352. 
Pinchers    for    docking,    159. 
Pine    tar    and    flies,    186. 
Plains,    the    Northern,    228. 
Protein,    sources   of,    147. 
Pulp,    beet,    feeding,    295. 
Pumpkins,    189. 
Pumpkin   seeds   as  a  vermifuge,   112. 

Racks,   forms  of,   122. 
Rain    in    fleeces,    121. 
Rambouillets,  37. 
Ram — 

management   of   the,   115. 

selection  of  a,  89. 

when  to  use  the,  114. 
Rams- 
number  of  ewes   for,   90,   116. 

old,   castrating,   160. 

range,    management  of,   230. 

running   with   ewes,    199. 

sources   of,   231. 
Range — 

breeding    season,    232. 

buying   lambs   on    the,    259. 

dipping,    237. 

diseases   on    the,    221. 

flocks,    improving,    243. 

methods    of    management,    218-221. 

methods    of   trimming,    234. 

shearing   on    the,   236. 

sheep   industry,    the,    241-244. 
Ranges,    cross-breeding    on,    83. 
Ranges,    division    of    the,    226. 
Rape,    the   use   of,    187. 
Ration    for   milk    production,    132. 
Restocking    with    sheep,    88. 
Roots    for   ewes,    135. 
Ross,   John,  of  Mickel  Tarrell,  68. 
Roving    instinct   of   sheep,    224. 
Rye  as   a  feed,   146. 
Rye   for  pasture,    178. 

Salt    essential,    155. 

Salt    in    hay,    283. 

San    Luis    Valley    lamb    feeding,    261, 

263. 

Scab    on    the   range,    221. 
Scab,   how   to   detect,   103. 
Scotch   Black-faced,    66. 
Screenings,    feeding,    275. 
Self-feeders,    295. 
Shade  for  lambs,   155. 
Shearing   machines,   205. 
Shearing,    methods    of,    202. 
Shearing   on   the   range,    236. 
Shearing-time,    201. 


Sheds,    movable,   156. 
Sheep — 

farming    in    America,    14. 

English    ideals    of,    43. 

feeding    thin,   250. 

number  of  in  states,   15. 

restocking  with,  88. 

washing,    200. 
Shelter,  temporary,   156. 
Shepherds,    British,    88. 
Shepherds  of  old,   19.  ( 

Shepherd,    the    western,    233. 
Shropshires,    48. 

Silage,    experience   with,   133,    134,   290. 
Silo,    292. 

Skin,    look    well   to   the,    100. 
Skinner,   Prof.   J.   H.,   on  silage,   134. 
Smith,   Prof.    W.   W.,   on   silage,   134. 
Sore    mouth   in   lambs,    138. 
Southdowns,   44. 
Soybeans,    147. 

Sterility    and    inbreeding,    97. 
Stomach    worms,    164,    170,    330,    338. 
Suffolks,   55. 

Sussex,    management    in.    46. 
Swedes   for   sheep   in   England,    135. 

Tails,   cutting  off,   159. 

Tapeworm,    112,    325. 

Tattoo    marks,    210. 

Teats,    sore,    138. 

Tents,    lambing,    196. 

Texas,    number    of    sheep    in,    15. 

Tick,    dipping   for   the,    102,   246. 

Trailing   sheep,   223. 

Trimming   feet,    192. 

Trochar,  using  for  bloat,   185. 

Troughs    for    corn    on    grass,    154. 

Trough   for   treating    foot   disease,    193. 

Troughs,    V-shaped,    120. 

Tunis    sheep,    69. 

Turnips,    135. 

Type- 
fixing,    94. 
keeping  a,   90. 
what  is?  90. 

Utah,   number  of  sheep   in,   15. 

Ventilation    of   sheep    barns,    123. 
Vetch,    hairy,    147. 
Vigor   necessary    in   flock,   99. 
Vitality    from    fresh    blood,    98. 
Von    Homeyer    Rambouillets,    36. 

Wandering  range   flocks,   222. 

Washing   sheep,   200. 

Washington,    number    of    sheep    in,    15. 

Water,    amount  of  in   a   fleece.   121. 

Water,    pure   for   lambs,    147. 

Weaning,    161. 

Wethers,    feeding    mature,    304. 

Windbreaks  in   Colorado.    271. 

Wisconsin,   number  of  sheep   in,   15. 

Woodland    Farm,    silage    on,    134. 

Wool- 
cost   of   producing.    21,   25. 
important    in    West,    70. 
Merino.   29. 
tariffs,    25. 
washing,    200. 

Worms,   lung   in   grass.   158. 

Wyoming,    number    of    sheep    in,    15. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


MAR     4   1936 

{936 

tw.j  '48DB 

272037 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


